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COLLECTION

A VEDIC READER

BY THE SAME AUTHOR UNIFORM WITH THE PRESENT WORK

A VEDIC GRAMMAR FOR STUDENTS

Including a chapter on Syntax and three Appendices : List of Verbs, Metre, Accent

Ji

A YEDIC READER

FOR STUDENTS

BY

ARTHUR ANTHONY MACDONELL

M.A., Ph.D.

BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT

FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE; FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL DANISH ACADE31Y

CONTAINING THIRTY HYMNS OF THE RIGVEDA IN

THE ORIGINAL SAMHITA AND PADA TEXTS, WITH

TRANSLITERATION, TRANSLATION, EXPLANATORY

NOTES, INTRODUCTION, VOCABULARY

OXFORD

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1917

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY

HUMPHREY MILFOKD

PUBHSHEK TO THE OKIVKKSITT

PREFACE

This Header is meant to be a companion volume to my Vedic Grammar for Students. It contains thirty hymns comprising just under 300 stanzas. These hymns have been taken exclusively from the Rigveda, not only because that Yeda represents the earliest and most important phase of the sacred language and literature of India, but because the addition of specimens from the later Vedic literature with their divergences in speech and thought would tend to confuse the learner beginning the study of the oldest period. All the books of the Rigveda have been drawn upon except the ninth. The reason of this exception is that, though the whole of the ninth book practically consists of hymns addressed to Soma only, the hymn which in my opinion represents that deity best occurs in another (the eighth) book. All the most important metres are represented, though no specimens of the rare and complex strophic measures could be given because none of the hymns composed in them seemed to be suitable for the Header. I have also considered literary merit as far as possible in making the selection. As regards subject-matter, each of the more important deities is represented by one hymn, Agni alone by two. There are besides a few hymns of a different type. One is concerned with social life (x. 34), one with magical ideas (vii. 103), two with cosmogony (x. 90. 129), and three with eschatology (x. 14. 15. 135). The selection thus forms a brief epitome of the Rigveda, the earliest monument of Indian thought. The arrange- ment of the hymns follows their order in the text of the Rigveda as shown, together with their respective deities and subjects, in the

vi PREFACE

table of contents (p. ix). As the latter list is so short, the name of the deity addressed in any selected hymn can be found at once, but it also appears in its alphabetical order in the General Index.

Unlike all Sanskrit and Vedic chrestomathies known to me, the present work is intended primarily for students who, while acquainted with Classical Sanskrit, are beginners of Vedic lacking the aid of a teacher with an adequate knowledge of the earliest period of the language and literature of India. It will moreover, I think, be found to contain much detailed information useful even to more advanced students. Hence difficult and obscure stanzas have never been omitted from any of the selected hymns, because the notes here afford an opportunity of illustrating the methods of critical interpre- tation (see, for instance, pages 36, 47, 139-40, 152, 166, 175).

In conjunction with my Vedic Grammar for Students, the Reader aims at supplying all that is required for the complete understanding of the selections without reference to any other book. Each hymn is preceded by a special introduction describing briefly the deity or the subject with which it deals. The text of every stanza is printed in three different forms. The first is the Samhita text, in Devajiagarl characters, exactly as handed down by tradition, without change or emendation. But each Pada or metrical line is printed separately so as to exhibit to the eye the versification of the stanza. Then comes on the right half of the page the traditional Pada text in which each word of the Samhita text is given separately without Sandhi, and in which compounds and certain derivatives and case- forms are analysed. This is an important addition because the Pada text, as nearly contemporary in origin with the Samhita text, fur- nishes us with the earliest interpretations, within the sphere of phonetics and word-formation, of the Rigveda. Next follows the transliterated Sainhitfi text, in which by the removal of vowel- contractions, the resolution of semivowels, and the replacement of a, the original metre of the Rigveda is restored and, by the use I of punctuation, the sense is made clearer. The translation, which follows, is close, accounting for every word of the original, and is

PREFACE vii

based on the critical method of interpretation. The notes furnish minute explanations of all matters concerned with grammar, metre, accent, syntax, and exegesis. The general introduction gives a concise account of the form and matter of the Rigveda, describing in outline its arrangement, its language and metre, its religion and mythology, besides the critical method here applied to the inter- pretation of its hymns. The vocabulary supplements the translation and notes by giving the derivation of every word and adding in brackets the most obvious cognates from the other Indo-European languages allied to Sanskrit, especially Avestic, Greek, Latin, and English. I have added a copious general Index for the purpose of enabling the student to utilize to the full the summary of Vedic philology which this book contains. Any one who has worked his way carefully through the pages of the Reader ought thus to have laid a solid foundation in Vedic scholarship, and to be prepared for further studies on independent lines.

Freedom from serious misprints is a matter of great importance in a book like this. Such freedom has, I trust, been achieved by the aid of my two friends. Dr. James Morison, Librarian of the Indian Institute, and my former pupil, Dr. A. .Berriedale Keith, Regius Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Edinburgh. In the course of this obliging task Prof. Keith has supplied me with a number of suggestions, the adoption of which has undoubtedly improved the notes in many points of detail.

Balliol College, Oxford. Ocloher, 1917.

CONTENTS

Preface	•
Introduction .	*
Vedic Hymns .
Agni .	i. 1
Savitr .	i. 35
Marutas	. i. 85
Visnu .	i. 154
Dyavaprthivi	i. 160
Indra .	ii. 12
Rudra .	. ii. 33
Apam napat.	. ii. 35
Mitra .	. iii. 59
Brhaspati .	. iv. 50
Usas	iv. 51
Agni .	V. 11
Parjanya	. V. 83
Pusan .	. vi. 54
Apas .	vii. 49
Mitra- Varuna	, vii. 61
Sarya .	vii. 63
Asvina	vii. 71
Varuna	vii. 86
Mandukas .	vii. 103
Visve devas .	viii. 29
Soma .	viii. 48
Funeral Hymn .	X. 14
Pitaras	X. 15

PAGES v

xi-xxxi

1-219

1-10

10-21

21-30

30-6

36-41

41-56

56-67

67-78

78-83

83-92

92-9

100-4

104-11

111-15

115-18

118-24

124-28

128-34

134-41

141-7

147-52

152-64

164-75

176-86

CONTENTS

PAGES

Gambler . . x. 34 186-95

Purusa . . X. 90 195-203

Ratri ... x. 127 203-7

Hymn of Creation x. 129 207-11

Yama ... x. 135 212-16

Vata ... x. 168 216-19

Vocabulary 221-56

General Index 257-68

INTRODUCTION

1. Age of the Rigveda.

The Rigveda is undoubtedly the oldest literary monument of the Indo-European languages. But the exact period when the hymns were composed is a matter of conjecture. All that we can say with any approach to certainty is that the oldest of them cannot date from later than the thirteenth century b. c. This assertion is based on the following grounds. Buddhism, which began to spread in India about 500 B.C., presupposes the existence not only of the Vedas, but also of the intervening literature of the Brahmanas and Upanishads. The development of language and religious thought apparent in the extensive literature of the successive phases of these two Vedic periods renders it necessary to postulate the lapse of seven or eight centuries to account for the gradual changes, linguistic, religious, social, and political, that this literature displays. On astronomical grounds, one Sanskrit scholar has (cf. p. 146) concluded that the • oldest Vedic hymns date from 3000 b. c, while another puts them as far back as 6000 b. c. These calculations are based on the assumption that the early Indians possessed an exact astronomical knowledge of the sun's course such as there is no evidence, or even probability, that they actually possessed. On the other hand, the possibility of such extreme antiquity seems to be disproved by the relationship of the hymns of the Rigveda to the oldest part of the Avesta, which can hardly date earlier than from about 800 b. c. That relationship is so close that the language of the Avesta, if it were known at a stage some five centuries earlier, could scarcely have differed at all from that of the Rigveda. Hence the Indians could not have separated from the Iranians much sooner than 1300 b. c. But, according to Prof. Jacobi, the separation took place before 4500 B.C. In that case we must assume that the Iranian and the

xii AGE OF THE RIGVEDA

Indian languages remained practically unchanged for the truly immense period of over 3000 years. We must thus rest content with the moderate estimate of the thirteenth century b.c. as the approximate date for the beginning of the Rigvedic period. This estimate has not been invalidated by the discovery in 1907 of the names of the Indian deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya, in an inscription of about 1400 b. c. found in Asia Minor. For the phonetic form in which these names there appear may quite well belong to the Indo-Iranian period when the Indians and the Persians were still one people. The date of the inscription leaves two centuries for the separation of the Indians, their migration to India, and the commencement of the Vedic hymn literature in the north-west of Hindustan.

2. Origin and Growth of the Collection.

When the Indo-Aryans entered India, they brought with them a religion in which the gods were chiefly personified powers of Nature, a few of them, such as Dyaus, going back to the Indo- European, others, such as Mitra, Varuna, Indra, to the Indo-Iranian period. They also brought with them the cult of fire and of Soma, besides a knowledge of the art of composing religious poems in several metres, as a comparison of the Rigveda and the Avesta shows. The purpose of these ancient hymns was to propitiate the gods by praises accompanying the offering of melted butter poured on the fire and of the juice of the Soma plant placed on the sacrificial grass. The hymns which have survived in the Rigveda from the early period of the Indo- Aryan invasion were almost exclusively composed by a hereditary priesthood. They were handed down in different families by memory, not by writing, which could hardly have been intro- duced into India before about 700 b. c. These family groups of hymns were gradually brought together till, with successive additions, they assumed the earliest collected form of the Rigveda. Then followed the constitution of the Samhita text, which appears to have taken place about 600 b.c, at the end of the period of the Brahmanas, but before the Upanishads, which form appendages to those works, came into existence. The creators of the Samhita did not in any

INTRODUCTION xiii

way alter the diction of the hymns here collected together, but only applied to the text certain rules of Sandhi which prevailed in their time, and by which, in particular, vowels are either contracted or changed into semi-vowels, and a is often dropped after e and o, in such a way as constantly to obscure the metre. Soon after this work was concluded, extraordinary precautions were taken to preserve from loss or corruption the sacred text thus fixed. The earliest expedient of this kind was the formation of the Pada or ' word ' text, in which all the words of the Samhita text are separated and given in their original form as unaffected by the rules of Sandhi, and in which most compounds and some derivatives and inflected forms are analysed. This text, which is virtually the earliest com- mentary on the Rigveda, was followed by other and more complicated methods of reciting the text, and by various works called Anukram- anis or ' Indexes ', which enumerate from the beginning to the end of the Rigveda the number of stanzas contained in each hymn, the deities, and the metres of all the stanzas of the Rigveda. Thanks to these various precautions the text of the Rigveda has been handed down for 2,500 years with a fidelity that finds no parallel in any other literature.

3. Extent and Divisions of the Rigveda.

The Rigveda consists of 1,017 or, counting eleven others of the eighth Book which are recognized as later additions, 1,028 hymns. These contain a total of about 10,600 stanzas, which give an average of ten stanzas to each hymn. The shortest hymn has only one stanza, while the longest has fifty-eight. If printed continuously like prose in Roman characters, the Samhita text would fill an octavo volume of about 600 pages of thirty -three lines each. It has been calculated that in bulk the RV. is equivalent to the extant poems of Homer.

There is a twofold division of the RV. into parts. One, which is purely mechanical, is into Astakas or ^ eighths ' of about equal length, each of which is subdivided into eight Adhyayas or ' lessons ', while each of the latter consists of Vargas or ' groups ' of five or six stanzas. The other division is into ten Mandalas or * books ' (lit. ^ cycles ')

xiv EXTENT AND DIVISIONS OF THE KIGVEDA

and Suktas or ^ hymns '. The latter method is an historical one, indicating the manner in which the collection came into being. This system is now invariably followed by Western Scholars in referring to or quoting from the Eigveda.

4. Arrangement of the Eigveda.

Six of the ten books, ii to vii, are homogeneous in character. The hymns contained in each of them were, according to native Indian tradition, composed or ^ seen ' by poets of the same family, which handed them down as its own collection. The tradition is borne out by the internal evidence of the seers' names mentioned in the hymns, and by that of the refrains occurring in each of these books. The method of arrangement followed in the ' family books ' is uniform, for each of them is similarly divided into groups addressed to different gods. On the other hand, Books i, viii, and x were not composed each by a distinct family of seers, while the groups of which they consist are constituted by being the hymns composed by different individual seers. Book ix is distinguished from the rest by all its hymns being addressed to one and the same deity. Soma, and by its groups being based not on identity of authorship, but of metre.

Family hooks. — In these the first group of hymns is invariably addressed to Agni, the second to Indra, and those that follow to gods of less importance. The hymns within these deity groups are arranged according to the diminishing number of stanzas contained in them. Thus in the second Book the Agni group of ten hymns begins with one of sixteen stanzas and ends with one of only six. The first hymn of the next group in the same book has twenty-one, the last only four stanzas. The entire group of the family books is, moreover, arranged according to the increasing number of the hymns in each of those books, if allowance is made for later additions. Thus the second Book has forty-three, the third sixty-two, the sixth seventy- five, and the seventh one hundred and four hymns. The homo- geneity of the family books renders it highly probable that they formed the nucleus of the EV., which gradually assumed its final shape by successive additions to these books.

INTRODUCTION xv

The earliest of these additions appears to be the second half of Book i, which, consisting of nine groups, each by a different author, was prefixed to the family books, the internal arrangement of which it follows. The eighth is like the family books as being in the main composed by members of one family, the Kanvas ; but it differs from them in not beginning with hymns to Agni and in the prevalence of the strophic metre called Pragatha. The fact of its containing fewer hymns than the seventh book shows that it did not form a unit of the family books ; but its partial resemblance to them caused it to be the first addition at the end of that collection. The first part of Book i (1-50) is in several respects like Book viii : Kanvas seem to have been the authors of the majority of these hymns ; their favourite strophic metre is again found here ; and both collections contain many similar or identical passages. There must have been some difference between the two groups, but the reason why they should have been separated by being added at the beginning and the end of an older collection has not yet been shown.

The ninth hook was added as a consequence of the first eight being formed into a unit. It consists entirely of hymns addressed to Soma while the juice was ' clarifying ' (pavamana) ; on the otlier hand, the family books contain not a single Soma hymn, and Books i and viii together only three hymns invoking Soma in his general character. Now the hymns of Book ix were composed by authors of the same families as those of Books ii to vii, as is shown, for instance, by the appearance here of refrains peculiar to those families. Hence it is to be assumed that all the hymns to Soma Pavamana were removed from Books i to viii, in order to form a single collection belonging to the sphere of the Udgatr or chanting priest, and added after Books i-viii, which were the sphere of the Hotr or reciting priest. The diction and recondite allusions in the hymns of this book suggest that they are later than those of the preceding books ; but some of them may be early, as accompanying the Soma ritual which goes back to the Indo-Iranian period. The hymns of the first part of this book (1-60) are arranged according to the decreasing num))er of their stanzas, beginning with ten and ending with four. In the second part (61-114), which contains some very long hymns (one of forty-eight and another of fifty-eight stanzas), this arrangement is not followed.

xvi ARRANGEMENT OF THE RIGVEDA

The two parts also differ in'metre : the hymns of the first are, excepting four stanzas, composed in Gayatrl, while the second consists mainly of groups in other metres ; thus 68-84 form a Jagati and 87-97 a Tristubh group.

The tenth book was the final addition. Its language and subject- matter show that it is later in origin than the other books ; its authors were, moreover, clearly familiar with them. Both its position at the end of the RV. and the fact that the number of its hymns (191) is made up to that of the first book indicate its supplementary character. Its hymns were composed by a large number of seers of different families, some of which appear in other books ; but the traditional attribution of authorship is of little or no value in the case of a great many hymns. In spite of its generally more modern character, it contains some hymns quite as old and poetic as the average of those in other books. These perhaps found a place here because for some reason they had been overlooked while the other collections were being formed. As regards language, we find in the tenth book earlier grammatical forms and words growing obsolete, while new words and meanings begin to emerge. As to matter, a tendency to abstract ideas and philosophical speculation, as well as the introduction of magical conceptions, such as belong to the sphere of the Atharvaveda, is here found to prevail.

5. Language.

The hymns of the RV. are composed in the earliest stage of that literary language of which the latest, or Classical Sanskrit, was stereotyped by the grammar of Panini at the end of the fourth century B.C. It differs from the latter about as much as Homeric from Attic Greek. It exhibits a much greater variety of forms than Sanskrit does. Its case-forms both in nominal and pronominal in- flexion are more numerous. It has more participles and gerunds, ij It is, however, in verbal forms that its comparative richness is most j apparent. Thus the RV. very frequently uses the subjunctive, which as such has entirely died out in Sanskrit ; it has twelve forms of the infinitive, while only a single one of these has survived in Sanskrit. The language of the RV. also differs from Sanskrit in its accent, which,

INTRODUCTION xvii

like that of ancient Greek, is of a musical nature, depending on the pitch of the voice, and is marked throughout the hymns. This accent has in Sanskrit been changed not only to a stress accent, but has shifted its position as depending on quantity, and is no longer marked. The Vedic accent occupies a very important position in Comparative Philology, while the Sanskrit accent, being secondary, has no value of this kind.

The Sandhi of the RV. represents an earlier and a less conventional stage than that of Sanskrit. Thus the insertion of a sibilant between final n and a hard palatal or dental is in the RV. restricted to cases where it is historically justified ; in Sanskrit it has become universal, being extended to cases where it has no justification. After e and o in the RV. a is nearly always pronounced, while in Sanskrit it is invariably dropped. It may thus be affirmed with certainty that no student can understand Sanskrit historically without knowing the language of the RV.

6. Metre.

The hymns of the RV. are without exception metrical. They contain on the average ten stanzas, generally of four verses or lines, but also of three and sometimes five. The line, which is called Pada ('quarter') and forms the metrical unit, usually consists of eight, eleven, or twelve syllables. A stanza is, as a rule, made up of lines of the same type ; but some of the rarer kinds of stanza are formed by combining lines of difi'erent length. There are about fifteen metres, but only about seven of these are at all common. By far the most common are the Tristubh (4x11 syllables), the GayatrT (3 x 8), and the Jagati (4x12), which together furnish two-thirds of the total number of stanzas in the RV. The Vedic metres, which are the foundation of the Classical Sanskrit metres except two, have a quantitative rhythm in which short and long syllables alternate and which is of a generally iambic type. It is only the rhythm of the last four or five syllables (called the cadence) of the line that is rigidly determined, and the lines of eleven and twelve syllables have a caesura as well. In their structure the Vedic metres thus come half way between the metres of the Tndo-Iranian period, in which, as the Avesta shows, the principle is the number of syllables only, and

1902 h

xviii METKE

those of Classical Sanskrit, in which (except the sloka) the quantity of every single syllable in the line is fixed. Usually a hymn of the Rigveda consists of stanzas in the same metre throughout ; a typical divergence from this rule is to mark the conclusion of a hymn with a stanza in a different metre. Some hymns are strophic in their construction. The strophes in them consist either of three stanzas (called trca) in the same simple metre, generally Gayatrl, or of two stanzas in different mixed metres. The latter type of strophe is called Pragatha and is found chiefly in the eighth book.

7. Religion of the Rigveda.

This is concerned with the worship of gods that are largely personifications of the powers of nature. The hymns are mainly invocations of these gods, and are meant to accompany the oblation of Soma juice and the fire sacrifice of melted butter. It is thus essentially a polytheistic religion, which assumes a pantheistic colouring only in a few of its latest hymns. The gods are usually stated in the RV. to be thirty-three in number, being divided into three groups of eleven distributed in earth, air, and heaven, the three divisions of the Universe. Troops of deities, such as the Maruts, are of course not included in this number. The gods were believed to have had a beginning. But they were not thought to have all come into being at the same time ; for the RV. occasionally refers to earlier gods, and certain deities are described as the offspring of others. That they were considered to have been originally mortal is implied in the statement that they acquired immortality by drinking Soma or by receiving it as a gift from Agni and Savitr.

The gods were conceived as human in appearance. Their bodily parts, which are frequently mentioned, are in many instances simply figurative illustrations of the phenomena of nature represented by them. Thus the arms of the Sun are nothing more than his rays ; and the tongue and limbs of Agni merely denote his flames. Some of the gods appear equipped as warriors, especially Indra, others are described as priests, especially Agni and Brhaspati. All of them drive through the air in cars, drawn chiefly by steeds, but sometimes by other animals. The favourite food of men is also that of the gods,

INTRODUCTION xix

consisting in milk, butter, grain, and the flesh of sheep, goats, and cattle. It is offered to them in the sacrifice, which is either conveyed to them in heaven by the god of fire, or which they come in their cars to partake of on the strew of grass prepared for their reception. Their favourite drink is the exhilarating juice of the Soma plant. The home of the gods is heaven, the third heaven, or the highest step of Visnu, where cheered by draughts of Soma they live a life of bliss.

Attributes of the gods. — Among these the most prominent is power, for they are constantly described as great and mighty. They regulate the order of nature and vanquish the potent powers of evil. They hold sway over all creatures ; no one can thwart their ordinances or live beyond the time they appoint ; and the fulfilment of desires is dependent on them. They are benevolent beings who bestow pros- perity on mankind ; the only one in whom injurious traits appear being Rudra. They are described as ' true ' and ' not deceitful ', being friends and protectors of the honest and righteous, but punishing sin and guilt. Since in most cases the gods of the RV. have not yet become dissociated from the physical phenomena which they represent, their figures are indefinite in outline and deficient in individuality. Having many features, such as power, brilliance, benevolence, and wisdom in common with others, each god exhibits but very few distinctive attributes. This vagueness is further in- creased by the practice of invoking deities in pairs — a practice making both gods share characteristics properly belonging to one alone. When nearly every power can thus be ascribed to every god, the identification of one deity with another becomes easy. There are in fact several such identifications in the RV. The idea is even found in more than one late passage that various deities are but different forms of a single divine being. This idea, however, never developed into monotheism, for none of the regular sacrifices in the Vedic period were offered to a single god. Finally, in other late hymns of the RV. we find the deities Aditi and Prajapati identified not only with all the gods, but with nature as well. This brings us to that pantheism which became characteristic of later Indian thought in the form of the Vedanta philosophy.

The Vedic gods may most conveniently be classified as deities of

b 2

XX CLASSIFICATION OF THE GODS

heaven, air, and earth, according to the threefold division suggested by the RV. itself. The celestial gods are Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitr, Pusan, the Asvins, and the goddesses Usas, Dawn, and RatrT, Night. The atmospheric gods are Indra, Apam napat, Rudra, the Maruts, Vayu, Parjanya, and Apas, the Waters. The terrestrial deities are PrthivT, Agni, and Soma. This Header con- tains hymns addressed to all these gods, with detailed introductions describing their characters in the words, as far as is possible, of the RV. itself. A few quite subordinate deities are not included, partly because no entire hymn is addressed to them. Two such belong to the celestial sphere. Trita, a somewhat obscure god, who is mentioned only in detached stanzas of the RV., comes down from the Indo- Iranian period. He seems to represent the ' third ' or lightning form of fire. Similar in origin to Indra, he was ousted by the latter at an early period. Matarisvan is a divine being also referred to only in scattered stanzas of the RV. He is described as having brought down the hidden fire from heaven to men on earth, like the Prometheus of Greek mythology. Among the terrestrial deities are certain rivers that are personified and invoked in the RV. Thus the Sindhu (Indus) is celebrated as a goddess in one hymn (x. 75, 2. 4. 6), and the Vipas (Bias) and the SutudrT (Sutlej), sister streams of the Panjab. in another (iii. 33). The most important and oftenest lauded is, however, the Sarasvati (vi. 61 ; vii. 95). Though the personification goes much further here than in the case of other streams, the connexion of the goddess with the river is never lost sight of in the RV.

Abstract deities. — One result of the advance of thought during the period of the RV. from the concrete towards the abstract was the rise of abstract deities. The earlier and more numerous class of these seems to have started from epithets which were applicable to one or more older deities, but which came to acquire an independent value as the want of a god exercising the particular activity in question began to be felt. We find here names denoting either an agent (formed with the suffix tr or tar), such as Dhatr * Creator ', or an attribute, such as Prajapati, 'Lord of Creatures'. Thus Dhatr, otherwise an epithet of Indra, appears also as an independent deity who creates heaven and earth, sun and moon. More rarely occur Vi dhatr, the ' Disposer ', Dhartr, the ' Supporter ', Tratr, the

INTRODUCTION xxi

* Protector ', and Netr, the ' Leader '. The only agent god mentioned at all frequently in the RV. is Tvastr, the ' Artificer ', though no entire hymn is addressed to him. He is the most skilful of workmen, having among other things fashioned the bolt of Indra and a new drinking-cup for the gods. He is a guardian of Soma, which is called the 'food of Tvastr', and which Indra drinks in Tvastr's house. He is the father of Saranyu, wife of Vivasvant and mother of the primaeval twins Yama and Yaml. The name of the solar deity Savitr, the 'Stimulator', belongs to this class of agent gods (cf. p. 11). '

There are a few other abstract deities whose names were originally epithets of older gods, but now become epithets of the supreme god who was being evolved at the end of the Rigvedic period. These appellations, compound in form, are of rare and late occurrence. The most important is Prajapati, 'Lord of Creatures'. Originally an epithet of such gods as Savitr and Soma, this name is employed in a late verse of the tenth book to designate a distinct deity in the character of a Creator. Similarly, the epithet Visvakarman, ' all-creating ', appears as the name of an independent deity to whom two hymns (x. 81. 82) are addressed. Hiranyagarbha, the ' Golden Germ ', once occurs as the name of the supreme god described as the ' one lord of all that exists '. In one curious instance it is possible to watch the rise of an abstract deity of this type. The refrain of a late hymn of the RV. (x. 121) is kasmai devaya havisa vidhema ? ' to what god should we pay worship with oblation ? ' This led to the word ka, ' who ? ' being used in the later Vedic literature as an independent name, Ka, of the supreme god. The only abstract deity of this type occurring in the oldest as well as the latest parts of the RV. is Brhaspati (p. 83).

The second and smaller class of abstract deities comprises per- sonifications of abstract nouns. There are seven or eight of these occurring in the tenth book. Two hymns (83. 84) are addressed to Manyu, 'Wrath', and one (x. 151) to Sraddha, 'Faith'. Anumati, ' Favour (of the gods) ', Aramati, ' Devotion ', Sunrta, ' Bounty ', Asuniti, ' Spirit-life ', and Nirrti, ' Decease ', occur only in a few isolated passages.

A purely abstract deity, often incidentally celebrated throughout

xxii ABSTRACT DEITIES

the RV. is A-diti, ' Liberation ', ' Freedom ' (lit. ' uii-binding '), whose main characteristic is the power of delivering from the bonds of physical suffering and moral guilt. She, however, occupies a unique position among the abstract deities, owing to the peculiar way in which the personification seems to have arisen. She is the mother of the small group of deities called Adityas, often styled ' sons of Aditi '. This expression at first most probably meant nothing more than 'sons of liberation ', according to an idiom common in the RV. and elsewhere. The word was then personified, with the curious result that the mother is mythologically younger than some at least of her sons, who (for instance Mitra) date from the Indo-Iranian period. The goddess Diti, named only three times in the RV., probably came into being as an antithesis to Aditi, with whom she is twice mentioned.

Goddesses play an insignificant part in the RV. The only one of importance is Usas (p. 92). Next come Sarasvati, celebrated ia two whole hymns (vi. 61 ; vii. 95) as well as parts of others, and Vac, ' Speech ' (x. 71. 125). With one hymn each are addressed Prthivi, 'Earth' (v. 84), Ratrl, 'Night' (x. 127, p. 203), and Aranyani, ' Goddess of the Forest ' (x. 146). Others are only sporadically mentioned. The wives of the great gods are still more insignificant, being mere names formed from those of their consorts, and altogether lacking in individuality : such are Agnayl, IndranI, Varunani, spouses of Agni, Indra, and Varuna respectively.

Dual Divinities. — A peculiar feature of the religion of the RV. is the invocation of pairs of deities wdiose names are combined as com- pounds, each member of which is in the dual. About a dozen such pairs are celebrated in entire hymns, and about a dozen more in detached stanzas. By far the largest number of hymns is addressed to the couple Mitra-Varuna, though the names most frequently found as dual compounds are those of Dyava-prthivT, ' Heaven and Earth ' (p. 36). The latter pair, having been associated as universal parents from the Indo-European period onwards, in all probability furnished the analogy for this dual type.

Groups of Deities. — There are also a few more or less definite groups of deities, generally associated with some particular god. The Maruts (p. 21), who attend on Indra, are the most numerous group. The

INTRODUCTION xxiii

smaller group of the Adityas, of whom Varuna is the chief, is constantly mentioned in company with their mother Aditi. Their number is stated in the EV. to be seven or, with the addition of Martanda, eight. One passage (ii. 27, 1) enumerates six of them, Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, Varuna, Daksa, Arnsa : Surya was probably regarded as the seventh. A much less important group, without individual names or definite number, is that of the Vasus, whose leader is generally Indra. There are, finally, the Visve devas (p. 147), who, invoked in many hymns, form a comprehensive group, which in spite of its name is, strange to say, sometimes conceived as a narrower group associated with others like the Vasus and Adityas.

Lesser Divinities. — Besides the higher gods, a number of lesser divine powers are known to the RV. The most prominent of these are the Rbhus, who are celebrated in eleven hymns. They are a deft-handed trio, who by their marvellous skill acquired the rank of deities. Among their five main feats of dexterity the greatest con- sisted in transforming the bowl of Tvastr into four shining cups. The bowl and the cups have been variously interpreted as the moon with its four phases or the year with its seasons. The Rbhus further exhibited their skill in renewing the youth of their parents, by whom Heaven and Earth seem to have been meant.

Occasional mention is made in the RV. of an Apsaras, a celestial water-nymph, the spouse of a corresponding genius named Gandharva. In a few passages more Apsarases than one are spoken of ; but the only one mentioned by name is UrvasT. Gandharva is in the RV. a single being (like the Gandarewa of the Avesta), who dwells in the aerial sphere, guards the celestial Soma, and is (as in the Avesta) connected with the waters.

There are, lastly, a few divinities of the tutelary order, guardians watching over the welfare of house or field. Such is the rarely mentioned Vastospati, ' Lord of the Dwelling ', who is invoked to grant a favourable entry, to remove disease, and to bestow protection and prosperity. Ksetrasya pati, ' Lord of the Field ', is besought to grant cattle and horses and to confer welfare. Sita, the ' Furrow ', is once invoked to dispense crops and rich blessings.

In addition to the great phenomena of nature, various features of the earth's surface as well as artificial objects are to be found deified

xxiv LESSER DIVINITIES

in the RV. Thus besides Rivers and Waters (p. 115), already mentioned as terrestrial goddesses, mountains are often addressed as divinities, but only along with other natural objects, or in association vs^ith gods. Plants are regarded as divine powers, one entire hymn (x. 97) being devoted to their praise, chiefly with reference to their healing properties. Sacrificial implements, moreover, are deified. The most important of these is the sacrificial post which is praised and invoked in a whole hymn (iii. 8). The sacrificial grass (barhis) and the Divine Doors (dvaro devih), which lead to the place of sacrifice, are addressed as goddesses. The pressing stones (gravanas) are invoked as deities in three hymns (x. 76. 94. 175) : spoken of as immortal, unaging, mightier than heaven, they are besought to drive away demons and destruction. The Mortar and Pestle used in pounding the Soma plant are also invoked in the RV. (i. 28, 5. 6). Weapons, finally, are sometimes deified : armour, bow, quiver, arrows, and drum being addressed in one of the hymns (vi. 75).

The Demons often mentioned in the hymns are of two kinds. The higher and more powerful class are the aerial foes of the gods. These are seldom called asura in the RV., where in the older parts that word means a divine being, like ahura in the Avesta (cf. p. 134). The term dasa or dasyu, properly the name of the dark aborigines, is frequently used in the sense of fiend to designate the aerial demons. The conflict is regularly one between a single god and a single demon, as exemplified by Indra and Vrtra. The latter is by far the most frequently mentioned. His mother being called Danu, he is sometimes alluded to by the metronymic term Danava. Another powerful demon is Vala, the personified cave of the cows, which he guards, and which are set free by Indra and his allies, notably the Ahgirases. Other demon adversaries of Indra are Arbuda, described as a wily beast, whose cows Indra drove out ; Visvarupa, son of Tvastr, a three headed demon slain by both Trita and Indra, who seize his cows ; and Svarbhanu, who eclipses the sun. There are several other individual demons, generally described as Dasas and slain by Indra. A group of demons are the Panis (' niggards '), primarily foes of Indra, who, with the aid of the dog Sarama, tracks and releases the cows hidden by them.

The second or lower class of demons are terrestrial goblins, enemies

INTEODUCTION xxv

of men. By far the most common generic name for them is Raksas. They are nearly always mentioned in connexion with some god who destroys them. The much less common term Yatu or Yatudhana (primarily 'sorcerer') alternates with Raksas, and perhaps expresses a species. A class of demons scarcely referred to in the RV., but often mentioned in the later Yedas, are the Pisacas, eaters of raw flesh or of corpses.

Not more than thirty hymns are concerned with subjects other than the worship of gods or deified objects. About a dozen of these, almost entirely confined to the tenth book, deal with magical practices, which properly belong to the sphere of the Atharvaveda. Their contents are augury (ii. 42. 43) or spells directed against poisonous vermin (i. 191) or disease (x. 163), against a demon destructive of children (x. 162), or enemies (x. 166), or rival wives (x. 145). A few are incantations to preserve life (x. 58. 60), or to induce sleep (v. 55), or to procure offspring (x. 183) ; while one is a panegyric of frogs as magical bringers of rain (vii. 103, p. 141).

8. Secular Matter in the Rigveda.

Secular hymns. — Hardly a score of the hymns are secular poems. These are especially valuable as throwing direct light on the earliest thought and civilization of India. One of the most noteworthy of them is the long wedding hymn (x. 85). There are also five funeral hymns (x. 14-18). Four of these are addressed to deities concerned with the future life ; the last, however, is quite secular in tone, and gives more information than any of the rest about the funeral customs of early Yedic India (cf. p. 164).

Mythological dialogues. — Besides several mythological dialogues in which the speakers are divine beings (iv. 62; x. 51. 52. 86. 108), there are two in which both agents are human. One is a somewhat obscure colloquy (x. 95) between a mortal lover Pururavas and the celestial nymph Urvasi, who is on the point of forsaking him. It is the earliest form of the story which much more than a thousand years later formed the subject of Kalidasa's drama Yikramorva^i. The other (x. 10) is a dialogue between Yama and Yami, the twin parents of the human race. This group of hymns has a special literary interest as foreshadowing the dramatic works of a later age.

xxvi SECULAR HYMNS

Didactic hymns. — Four hymns are of a didactic character. One of these (x. 84) is a striking poem, being a monologue in which a gambler laments the misery he has brought on himself and his home by his inability to resist the attraction of the dice. The rest which describe the various ways in which men follow gain (ix. 112), or praise wise speech (x. 71), or the value of good deeds (x. 117), antici- pate the sententious poetry for which post-Vedic literature is noted.

Riddles. — Two of the hymns consist of riddles. One of these (viii. 29, p. 147) describes various gods without mentioning their names. More elaborate and obscure is a long poem of fifty-two stanzas (i. 164), in which a number of enigmas, largely connected with the sun, are propounded in mystical and symbolic language. Thus the wheel of order with twelve spokes, revolving round the heavens, and containing within it in couples 720 sons, means the year with its twelve months and 360 days and 360 nights.

Cosmogonic hymns. — About half a dozen hymns consist of specula- tions on the origin of the world through the agency of a Creator (called by various names) as distinct from any of the ordinary gods. One of them (x. 129, p. 207), which describes the world as due to the development of the existent (sat) from the non-existent (a-sat), is particularly interesting as the starting-point of the evolutional philo- sophy which in later times assumed shape in the Sahkhya system.

A semi-historical character attaches to one complete hymn (i. 126) and to appendages of 3 to 5 stanzas attached to over thirty others, which are called Danastutis, or * praises of gifts '. These are j)ane- gyrics of liberal patrons on behalf of whom the seers composed their hymns. They yield incidental genealogical information about the poets and their employers, as well as about the names and the habitat of the Vedic tribes. They are late in date, appearing chiefly in the first and tenth, as well as among the supplementary hymns of the eighth book.

Geograx^hical data. — From the geographical data of the RV., especially the numerous rivers there mentioned, it is to be inferred that the Indo- Aryan tribes when the hymns were composed occupied the territory roughly corresponding to the north-west Frontier Province, and the Panjab of to-day. The references to flora and fauna bear out this conclusion.

INTEODUCTION xxvii

The historical data of the hymns show that the Indo-Aryans were still engaged in war with the aborigines, many victories over these foes being mentioned. That they were still moving forward as conquerors is indicated by references to rivers as obstacles to advance. Though divided into many tribes, they were conscious of religio-us and racial unity, contrasting the aborigines with themselves by calling them non-sacrificers and unbelievers, as well as ' black-skins ' and the ' Dasa colour ' as opposed to the ' Aryan colour '.

Incidental references scattered throughout the hymns supply a good deal of information about the social conditions of the time. Thus it is clear that the family, with the father at its head, was the basis of society, and that women held a freer and more honoured position than in later times. Various crinies are mentioned, robbery, especially of cattle, apparently being the commonest. Debt, chiefly as a result of gambling, was known. Clothing consisted usually of an upper and a lower garment, which were made of sheep's wool. Bracelets, anklets, necklaces, and earrings were worn as ornaments. Men usually grew beards, but sometimes shaved. Food mainly consisted of milk, clarified butter, grain, vegetables, and fruit. Meat was eaten only when animals were sacrificed. The commonest kind appears to have been beef, as bulls were the chief offerings to the gods. Two kinds of spirituous liquor were made : Soma was drunk at religious ceremonies only, while Sura, extracted from some kind of grain, was used on ordinary occasions.

Occupations. — One of the chief occupations of the Indo- Aryan was warfare. He fought either on foot or from a chariot, but there is no evidence to show that he ever did so on horseback. The ordinary weapons were bows and arrows, but spears and axes were also used. Cattle-breeding appears to have been the main source of livelihood, cows being the chief objects of desire in prayers to the gods. But agriculture was also practised to some extent : fields were furrowed with a plough drawn by bulls ; corn was cut with sickles, being then threshed and winnowed. Wild animals were trapped and snared, or hunted with bows and arrows, occasionally with the aid of dogs. Boats propelled by paddles were employed, as it seems mainly for the purpose of crossing rivers. Trade was known only in the form of barter, the cow representing the unit of value in exchange. Certain

xxviii OCCQPATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS

trades and crafts already existed, though doubtless in a rudimentary stage. The occupations of the wheelwright and the carpenter were combined. The smith melted ore in a forge, and made kettles and other vessels of metal. The tanner prepared the skins of animals. Women plaited mats of grass or reeds, sewed, and especially wove, but whether they ever did so professionally is uncertain.

Amusements. — Among these chariot-racing was the favourite. The most popular social recreation was playing with dice (cp. p. 186). Dancing was also practised, chiefly by women. The people were fond of music, the instruments used being the drum (dundubhi), the flute (vana), and the lute (vina). Singing is also mentioned.

9. Literary merit of the Eigveda.

The diction of the hymns is on the whole natural and simple, free from the use of compounds of more than two members. Considering their great antiquity, the hymns are composed with a remarkable degree of metrical skill and command of language. But as they were produced by a sacerdotal class and were generally intended to ac- company a ritual no longer primitive, their poetry is often impaired by constant sacrificial allusions. This is especially noticeable in the hymns addressed to the two ritual deities Agni and Soma, where the thought becomes afl'ected by conceits and obscured by mysticism. Nevertheless the KV. contains much genuine poetry. As the gods are mostly connected with natural phenomena, the praises addressed to them give rise to much beautiful and even noble imagery. The degree of literary merit in different hymns naturally varies a good deal, but the average is remarkably high. The most poetical hymns are those addressed to Dawn, equal if not superior in beauty to the religious lyrics of any other literature. Some of the hymns to Indra show much graphic power in describing his conflict with the demon Vrtra. The hymns to the Maruts, or Storm gods, often depict with vigorous imagery the phenomena of thunder and lightning, and the mighty onset of the wind. One hymn to Parjanya (v. 83) paints the devastating effects of the rain-storm with great vividness. The hymns in praise of Varuna describe the various aspects of his sway as moral ruler of the world in an exalted strain of poetry. Some of

INTRODUCTION xxix

the mythological dialogues set forth the situation with much beauty of language ; for example, the colloquy between Indra's messenger Sarama and the demons who stole the cows (x. 108), and that between the primaeval twins Yama and Yarn! (x. 10). The Gambler's lament (x. 34) is a fine specimen of pathetic poetry. One of the funeral hymns (x. 18) expresses ideas connected with death in language of impressive and solemn beauty. One of the cosmogonic hymns (x. 129) illustrates how philosophical speculation can be clothed in poetry of no mean order.

10. Interpretation.

In dealing with the hymns of the RV. the important question arises, to what extent are we able to understand their real sense, considering that they have come down to us as an isolated relic from the remotest period of Indian literature ? The reply, stated generally, is that, as a result of the labours of Vedic scholars, the meaning of a considerable proportion of th^e RV. is clear, but of the remainder many hymns and a great many single stanzas or passages are still obscure or unintelligible. This was already the case in the time of Yaska, the author of the Nirukta, the oldest extant commentary (c. 500 B. c.) on about 600 detached stanzas of the RV. ; for he quotes one of his predecessors, Kautsa, as sajang that the Vedic hymns were obscure, unmeaning, and mutually contradictory.

In the earlier period of Vedic studies, commencing about the middle of the nineteenth century, the traditional method, which follows the great commentary of Sayana (fourteenth century a.c), and is represented by the translation of the RV., begun by H. H. Wilson in 1850, was considered adequate. It has since been proved that, though the native Indian commentators are invaluable guides in explaining the theological and ritual texts of the Brahmanas and Sutras, with the atmosphere of which they were familiar, they did not possess a continuous tradition from the time when the Vedic hymns were composed. That the gap between the poets and the interpreters even earlier than Yaska must have been considerable, is shown by the divergences of opinion among his predecessors as quoted by him. Thus one of these, Aurnavabha, interprets nasatyau,

XXX INTERPKETATION

an epithet of the Asvins, as ^ true, not false ', another Agrayana, as ^ leaders of truth ' (satyasya pranetarau), while Yaska himself thinks it may mean ' nose-born ' (nasika-prabhavau) ! Yaska, moreover, mentions several different schools of interpretation, each of which explained difficulties in accordance with its own particular theory. Yaska's own interpretations, which in all cases of doubt are based on etymology, are evidently often merely conjectural, for he frequently gives several alternative explanations of a word. Thus he explains the epithet jata-vedas in as many as five different ways. Yet he must have had more and better means of ascertaining the sense of various obscure words than Sayana who lived nearly 2,000 years later. Sayana's interpretations, however, sometimes differ from those of Yaska. Hence either Yaska is wrong or Sayana does not follow the tradition. Again, Sayana often gives several inconsistent explanations of a word in interpreting the same passage or in com- menting on the same word in different passages. Thus asura, ' divine being ', is variously rendered by him as ' expeller of foes ', 'giver of strength', 'giver of life', ' hurler away of what is un- desired ', * giver of breath or water ', ' thrower of oblations, priest ', 'taker away of breath', 'expeller of water, Parjanya', 'impeller', 'strong', 'wise', and 'rain-water' or *a water-discharging cloud'! In short it is clear from a careful examination of their comments that neither Yaska nor Sayana possessed any certain knowledge about a large number of words in the RV. Hence their interpreta- tions can be treated as decisive only if they are borne out by probability, by the context, and by parallel passages.

For the traditional method Roth, the founder of Vedic philology, substituted the critical method of interpreting the difficult parts of the RV. from internal evidence by the minute comparison of all words parallel in form and matter, while taking into consideration context, grammar, and etymology, without ignoring either the help supplied by the historical study of the Vedic language in its con- nexion with Sanskrit or the outside evidence derived from the Avesta and from Comparative Philology. In the application of his method Roth attached too much weight to etymological consid('ratiuns. while lie undervalued the evidence of native tradition. On the other hand, a reaction arose which, in emphasizing the purely Indian character

INTKODUCTION xxxi

of the Vedic hymns, connects the interpretation of them too closely with the literature of the post-Vedic period and the much more advanced civilization there described. It is important to note that the critical scholar has at his disposal not only all the material that was open to the traditional interpreters , and to which he is moreover able to apply the comparative and historical methods of research, but also possesses over and above many valuable aids that were unknown to the traditional school — the Avesta, Comparative Philo- logy, Comparative Keligion and Mythology, and Ethnology. The student will find in the notes of the Header many exemplifications of the usefulness of these aids to interpretation. There is good reason to hope from the results already achieved that steady adherence to the critical method, by admitting all available evidence and by avoiding onesidedness in its application, will eventually clear up a large proportion of the obscurities and difficulties that still confront the interpreter of the Rigveda.

EREATA

P. 14, line 27, for sitipado read sitipado.

P. 28, line 1, read •T^^jf^-

P. 31, line 29, and p. 46, 1. 29, for yo read yo.

P. 48, head-line, for i. 12, 4 read ii. 12, 4.

P. 51, line 31, for yo read yo.

P. 60, line 13, for no read no.

P. 69, line 2, for tarn read tam.

Pp. 68, 70, 71, 75," head-lines, for APAM read APAM.

P. 118,' head-line, for APAS read APAS.

P. 125, line 12, for visvacaksas read visvacaksas.

P. 128, line 3, for nu read nu.

P 139, line 14, for vibhidako read vibhidako.

P 142, last line, and p. 143, line 11, for anyo read anyo.

P. 144, head-line, for MANDUKAS read MANDUKAS.

P. 179, line 26, for te read te.

P 184, line 17, for te read te.

P. 224, head-line and line 1, for abhiti read abhiti.

/

AGNI

As the personification of the sacrificial fire, Agni is second in importance to Indra (ii. 12) only, being addressed in at least 200 hymns. The anthropo- morphism of his physical appearance is only rudimentary, and is connected chiefly with the sacrificial aspect of fire. Thus he is butter-backed, flame- haired, arrd has a tawny beard, sharp jaws, and golden teeth. Mention is often made of his tongue, with which the gods eat the oblation. With a burning head he faces in all directions.

He is compared with various animals : he resembles a bull that bellows, and has horns which he sharpens ; when born he is often called a calf ; he is kindled like a horse that brings the gods, and is yoked to convey the sacrifice to them. He is also a divine bird ; he is the eagle of the sky ; as dwelling in the waters he is like a goose ; he is winged, and he takes possession of the wood as a bird perches on a tree.

Wood or ghee is his food, melted butter his beverage ; and he is nourished three times a day. He is the mouth by which the gods eat the sacrifice ; and his flames are spoons with which he besprinkles the gods ; but he is also asked to consume the off'erings himself. He is sometimes, though then nearly always with other gods, invited to drink the Soma juice.

His brightness is much dwelt upon : he shines like the sun ; his lustre is like the rays of the dawn and the sun, and like the lightnings of the rain-cloud. He shines even at night, and dispels the darkness with his beams. On the other hand, his path is black when he invades the forests and shaves the earth as a barber a beard. His flames are like roaring waves, and his sound is like the thunder of heaven. His red smoke rises up to the firmament ; like the erector of a post he supports the sky with his smoke. ' Smoke-bannered ' (dhuma-ketu) is his frequent and exclusive epithet.

He has a shining, golden, lightning car, drawn by two or more ruddy and tawny steeds. He is a charioteer of the sacrifice, and with his steeds he brings the gods on his car.

He is the child of Heaven (Dyaus), and is often called the son of Heaven and Earth (i. 160). He is also the offspring of the waters. The gods generated him as a light for the Aryan or for man, and placed him among men. Indra is called Agni's twin brother, and is more closel,y associated with him than any other god.

1902 B

2 AGNI [i. 1

The mythology of Agni, apart from his sacrificial activity, is mainly concerned with his various births, forms, and abodes. Mention is often made of his daily production from the two kindling sticks (ardnis), which are his parents or his mothers. From the dry wood Agni is born living ; as soon as born the child devours his parents. By the ten maidens that produce him are meant the ten fingers of the kindler. Owing to the force required to kindle Agni he is often called 'son of strength' (sahasah sunuh). Being produced every morning he is young; at the same time no sacrificer is older than Agni, for he conducted the first sacrifice. Again, Agni's origin in the aerial waters is often referred to : he is an embryo of the waters ; he is kindled in the waters ; he is a bull that has grown in the lap of the waters. As the 'son of Waters' (ii. 35) he has become a separate deity. He is also sometimes conceived as latent in terrestrial waters. This notion of Agni in the waters is a prominent one in the RV. Thirdly, a celestial origin of Agni is often mentioned : he is born in the highest heaven, and was brought down from heaven by Matarisvan, the Indian Prometheus ; and the acquisition of fire by man is regarded as a gift of the gods as well as a production of Matarisvan. The Sun (vii. 63) is further regarded as a form of Agni. Thus Agni is the light of heaven in the bright sky ; he was born on the other side of the air and sees all things ; he is born as the sun rising in the morning. Hence Agni comes to have a triple character. His births are three or threefold ; the gods made him threefold ; he is threefold light ; he has three heads, three bodies, three stations. This threefold nature of Agni is clearly recognized in the RV., and represents the earliest Indian trinity.

The universe being also regarded as divided into the two divisions of heaven and earth, Agni is sometimes said to have two origins, and indeed exclusively bears the epithet dvi-janman having two births. As being kindled in numerous dwellings Agni is also said to have many births.

Agni is more closely associated with human life than any other deity. He is the only god called grha-pati lord of the house, and is constantly spoken of as a guest (atithi) in human dwellings. He is an immortal who has taken up his abode among mortals. Thus he comes to be termed the nearest kinsman of men. He is oftenest described as a father, sometimes also as a brother or even as a son of his worshippers. He both takes the offerings of men to the gods and brings the gods to the sacrifice. He is thus characteristically a messenger (duta) appointed by gods and by men to be an ' oblation-bearer '.

As the centre of the sacrifice he comes to be celebrated as the divine counterpart of the earthly priesthood. Hence he is often called priest (rtvij, vipra), domestic priest (purohita), and more often than by any other name invoking priest (h6tr), also officiating priest (adhvaryii) and praying priest (brahman). His priesthood is the most salient feati re

J-1, l] AGNI

3

of his character ; he is in fact the great priest, as Incira is the crreat warrior. ^

Agni's wisdom is often dwelt upon. As knowing all the details of sacrifice, he is wise and all-knowing, and is exclusively called jata-vedas he ivho knows all created heings.

He is a great benefactor of his worshippers, protecting and delivering them, and bestowing on them all kinds of boons, but pre-eminently domestic welfare, offspring, and prosperity.

His greatness is often lauded, and is once even said to surpass that of the other gods. His cosmic and creative powers are also frequently praised.

^From the ordinary sacrificial Agni who conveys the offering (havya- vahana) is distinguished his corpse-devouring (kravyad) form that burns the body on the funeral pyre (x. 14). Another function of Agni is to burn and dispel evil spirits and hostile magic.

The sacrificial fire was already in the Indo-Iranian period the centre of a developed ritual, and was personified and worshipped as a mighty, wise, and beneficent god. It seems to have been an Indo-European institution also, since the Italians and Greeks, as well as the Indians and Iranians, had the custom of offering gifts to the gods in fire. But whether it was already personified in that remote period is a matter of conjecture.

The name of Agni (Lat. ignis, Slavonic ogni) is Indo-European, and may originally have meant the 'agile ' as derived from the root ag to drive (Lat. ago, Gk. ayco, Skt. ajami).

ElGVEDA i. 1.

The metre of this hymn is Gayatri (p. 438) in which nearly one-fourth of the EV. is composed. It consists of three octosyllabic verses identical in construction, each of which, when normal, ends with two iambics (v^ - .-. ^). The first two verses are in the Samhita treated as a hemistich ; but there is no reason to suppose that in the original text the second verse was more sharply divided from the third than from the first.

fmit Tr^^Tci^T^ II ftcTTTI I T??^J^TrtiT^ II

[ Agnim ile purohitam, I magnify Agni the domestic priest,

yajnasya devam rtvijam, the divine ministrant of the sacrifice,

hotaram ratnadhatamam. the invoJcer, best hestoiver of treasure.

B 2

4. AGNI [i. 1, 1

On the marking of the accent in the RV. see p. 448, 2. The verb lie (1. s. pr. A. of id : 1 for d between vowels, p. 8, f. n. 2) has no Udatta because it is in a principal sentence and does not begin a sentence or Pada (p. 466, 19 A.) ; its first syllable bears the dependent Svarita which follows the Udatta of the preceding syllable (p. 448, 1). puro-hitam has the accent of a Karmadharaya when the last member is a pp. (p. 456, top), yajnasya is to be taken with r.tvijam (not with purohitam according to Say ana), both because the genitive normally precedes the noun that governs it (p. 285 e), and because it is in the same Pada ; cp. EV. viii. 38, 1 ; yajnasya hi stha rtvija ye tivo (Indra-Agni) are ministrants of the sacrifice. The dependent Svarita which the first sjdlable of rtvijam would otherwise bear (like ile), disappears because this syllable must be marked with the Anudatta that precedes an Udatta. rtv-ij though etymologically a compound (rtu + ij = yaj) is not analysed in the Pada text, because the second member does not occur as an in- dependent word ; cp. x. 2, 5 : agnir devam rtuso yajati may Agni sacrifice to the gods according to the seasons, ratna-dha-tama (with the ordinary Tp. accent : p. 456, 2) : the Pada text never divides a cd. into more than two members. The suffix tama, which the Pada treats as equivalent to a final member of a cd., is here regarded as forming a unit with dha ; cp. on the other hand vira-vat + tama in 3 c and citra-sravas + tama in 5 b. ratna never means jewel in the RV.

2 Agnih purvebhir rsibhir Agni to he magnified hy past and

ilio nutanair uta, present seers, may he conduct the gods

sa devam 6ha vaksati. here.

rsibhis : The declensional endings bhyam, bhis, bhyas, su are in the Pada text treated like final members of compounds and separated, but not when the pure stem, as in the a dec, is modified in the preceding member ; hence purvebhis (p. 77, note 9) is not analysed, idyas : to be read as ilias (p. 16, 2 d). nutanais : note that the two

i. 1, 3] AGNI 5

forms of the inst. pi. of the a dec. in ais and ebhis constantly occur in the same stanza, sa (49) being unmarked at the beginning of a Pada, has the Udatta ; the dependent Svarita of the following syllable disappears before the Anudatta required to indicate the following Udatta of vam (Sandhi, see 39). This Anudatta and the Svarita of vaksati show that all the intervening unmarked syllables vam 6ha have the Udatta. All the unaccented syllables following a Svarita (till the Anudatta preceding an Udatta) remain unmarked ; hence the last two syllables of vaksati are unmarked • but in the Pada text every syllable of a word which has no Udatta is marked with the Anudatta ; thus vaksati. The latter word is the s ao. sb. of vah carry for vah-s-a-ti (148, 2 ; 69 a). In a iha vaksati, the prp. because it is in a principal sentence is uncom- pounded and accented (p. 468, 20), besides as very often being separated from the verb by another word. The verb vah is con- stantly connected with Agni, who conveys the sacrifice and brings the gods. Syntactically the first hemistich is equivalent to a rel. clause, sa being the correlative (cp. p. 294 a). The gerundive idyas strictly speaking belongs in sense to nutanais, but is loosely con- strued with piirvebhis also, meaning ' is to be magnified by present seers and (was) to be magnified by past seers '. The pel. uta and (p. 222) is always significant in the RV.

^w^ ^'^t^tttt?^ II "^wm^ I ^T^ci:^?!^?:^: II

\ Agnina rayim asnavat Through Agni may one ohtain tvealfh

posam eva div^-dive, day hy day (and) prosperity, glorious

yasasam viravattamam. (and) most abounding in heroes,

asnav-a-t : sb. pr. of ams attain, 3. s. ind. pr. asnoti (cp. p. 184) ; the prn. ' he ' inherent in the 3. s. of the vb. is here used in the indefinite sense of 'one', as so often in the 8. s. op. in classical Sanskrit, rayim, posam : co-ordinate nouns are constantly used in the RV. without the conjunction ca. div^-dive : this is one of the numerous itv. compounds found in the RV., which are always

6 AGNI I i. 1, 3

accented on the iii'st membei* only, and are analysed in the Pada text like other compounds (189 C a), yasasam : this is one of the few adjectives ending in -as that occur in the RV. ; the corre- sponding n. substantives are accented on the first syllable, as yas-as fame (83, 2 a ; 182, p. 256). vira-vat-tamam : both the suffix vant (p. 264, cp. 185 a) and the superlative suffix tama are treated in the Pada text like final members of a cd . ; viravant being here regarded as a unit, it is treated as the first member in the analysis (cp. note on ratna-dhatama in 1 c). In these two adjectives we again have co-ordination without the connecting pel. ca. Their exact meaning is 'causing fame' and 'produced by many heroic sons', fame and brave fighters being constantly prayed for in the hymns.

^ <|^g ^^f?T II ^: I T^ 1 1^^ I ^wfh II

4 Agne, yam yajnam adhvaram 0 Agni, the worship and sacrifice

c visvatah paribhur asi, that thou encompassest on every side,

sa id dev^su gachati. that same goes to the gods.

yajnam adhvaram : again co-ordination without ca ; the former has a wider sense = worship (prayer and offering) ; the latter = sacrificial act. visva-tas : the prn. adj. visva usually shifts its accent to the second syllable before adv. suffixes and as first member of a cd. (p. 454, 10). asi is accented as the vb. of a subordinate clause (p. 467, B). sa id: all successively unmarked syllables at the beginning of a hemistich have the Udatta (p. 449, 2). On the particle id see p. 218. dev^su : the loc. of the goal reached (p. 325, 1 ?;) ; the ace, which might be used, would rather express the goal to which the motion is directed. gachati: as the vb. of a principal sentence has no Udatta (19 A) ; nor has it any accent mark in the Samhita text because all unaccented syllables following a dependent Svarita remain unmarked ; on the other hand, all the syllables of an unaccented word are marked with the Anudfitta in the Pada text (cp. note on 2 d). The first syllable of gachati is long by position (p. 437, a 3).

i. 1, 6] AGNI " 7

|Tt |%f^TT ^^<l II ^^: I l^fir: I ^ I ^wi II

5 Agnir hota kavikratuh Mai/ Agni the invoker, of tvise

satyas citrasravastamah,^ intelligence j the true, of most 'brilliant

devo dev^bhir a gamat^ fame, the god come ivith the gods.

Both kavi-kratus and citra-sravas have the regular Bv. accent (p. 455 c) ; the latter cd. is not analysed in the Pada text because it forms a unit as first member, from which tama is separated as the second ; cp. notes on tama in 1 c and 3 c. dev^bhis : the inst. often expresses a sociative sense without a prp. (like saha in Skt.) : see 199 A 1. devo devebhih : the juxtaposition of forms of the same \vord, to express a contrast, is common in the RV. gam-a-t : root ao. sb. of gam (p. 171) ; on the accentuation of a gamat see p. 468, 20 A a...

\ '"^ ^I^ ^'l ^fll ^f I ^J^ I ^»l I

"^ ^ ^ft^ftr I ^^ I ^j^^ I ^tft^ftr I

ff%Tr(^(5r^f^T: ii rfqi i fri; i cfci; i ^ysm^ \ ^ff t: ii

5 yad anga dasiise tuam, Just what good thou, 0 Agni, tvilt

Agne, bhadram karisyasi, do for the ivorshipper, that (purpose)

tav^t tat satyam, Angirah, of thee (comes) true, 0 Angiras.

anga : on this pel. see 180 (p. 213). dasiise : dat. of das-vams, one of the few pf. pt. stems in the RV. formed without red. (140, 5 ; 157 h), of which only vid-vams survives in Skt. tvam : here, as nearly everywhere in the RV., to be read as tuam on account of the metre. Though the Padas forming a hemistich constitute a metrical unit, that is, are not divided from each other either in Sandhi or in the marking of the accent, the second Pada is syntactically separated from the first inasmuch as it is treated as a new sentence, a voc. or a vb. at its beginning being always accented (p. 465, 18 a ; 19 h).

8 AGNI [i. 1, 6

Hence Agne is accented (the Udatta being, as always, on the first syllable, p. 465, 18), while Angiras is not (p. 466, 18 h). karisyasi (ft. of kr do) : that is, whatever good thou intendest to do to the worshipper will certainly be realized, tava it tat : that intention of thee.

if^ ^t^ xr^iflr n if^: i ^j^: \ ^ i x^f^ \\

7 upa tvagne div^-dive, To thee, 0 Agni, day ly day, 0

dosavastar, dhiya vayam, illuminer of gloom, we come ivith

namo bharanta ^masi ;' thought bringing homage ;

tva as the enc. form of tvam (109 a) and Agne as a voc. in the middle of a Pada (p. 466 l>) are unaccented. The ace. tva is most naturally to be taken as governed by the preposition lipa (p. 209), though it might otherwise be quite well dependent on the cd. vb. lipa a-imasi (a common combination of lipa and a with verbs meaning to go), as the first prp. is often widely separated from the verb (191 /; p. 468, 20 a), dosa-vastar : Sayana explains this cd. (which occurs here only) as by night and day, but vastar never occurs as an adv. and the accent of dosa is shifted (which is not otherwise the case in such cds., as sayam-pratar evening and morning, from sayam) ; the explanation as 0 illuminer (from 1. vas shine) of darkness (with voc. accent on the first syllable) is much more probable, being- supported by the description of Indra (iii. 49, 4) as ksapam vasta janita suryasya illuminer of nights, generator of the Sun. dhiya inst. of dhi thought (accent, p. 458, 1), used in the sense of mental xwayer. namas, lit. boiv, implies a gesture of adoration, bharantas : N. pi. pr. pt. of bhr hear, a-imasi : the ending masi is five times as common as mas in the RV. (p. 125, f. n. 2).

^^T^ ^ ^ II ^^'^T^Jl I ^ I ^ir II

i. 1, 9] AGNl 9

S rajantam adhvaranam, (to thee) rulimj over sacrifices, the

gopam rtasya didivim, shining gitardtcm of order, groiulng in

vardhamanam sn6 dame. thine otun house.

rajantam : this and the other accusatives in this stanza are m agreement with tva in the preceding one. adhvaranam : governed by the preceding word, because verbs of ruling take the gen. (202 A a) ; the final syllable am must be pronounced with a slur equivalent to two syllables (like a vowel sung in music), go-pam : ©ne of the many m. stems in final radical a (p. 78), which in Skt. is always shortened to a (as go-pa), rta means the regular order of nature, such as the unvarying course of the sun and moon, and of the seasons ; then, on one hand, the regular course of sacrifice (rite) ; on the other, moral order (right), a sense replaced in Skt. by dharma. Agni is specially the guardian of rta in the ritual sense, because the sacrificial fire is regularly kindled every day ; Varuna (vii. ^^) is specially the guardian of rta in the moral sense, vardhamanam : growing in thine oivn house, because the sacrificial fire after being kindled flames up in its receptacle on the altar. sv6 : to be read as su6 ; this prn. meaning oivn refers to all three persons and numbers in the EV., my oivn, thy- oivn, his own, &c. (cp. p. 112 c). dame: this word {= Lat. domu-s) is common in the KV., but has disappeared in Skt.

^^^^T ^: ^^"^ u ^^^ I 5: 1 ^^^ II

9 sa nah piteva sunave, .^ T So, 0 Agni, he easy of access to us,

Agne, supayano bhava ; ^ as a father to his son ; abide ivith us sacasva nah suastaye. for our weU-heing.

sa is here used in its frequent anaphoric sense of as such, thus (p. 294 &). nas enc. dat. (109 a) i)arallel to sunave. pita iva : the enc. pel. iva is regularly treated by the Pada text as the second member of a cd. ; in the KV. pitr is usually coupled with stinu, matr with putra. sunav6 : this word as written in the Samhita text appears with two Udattas, because the Udatta of the elided a

1 0 AGNI f i. 1, 9

is thrown back on the pi-eceding syllable (p. 465, 3) ; but this a must be restored, as the metre shows, and sfinave Agne read. Though a is elided in about 75 per cent, of its occurrences in the written Samhita text, it remains in the rest ; it must be pronounced in about 99 per cent. (cp. p. 23, f. n. 4 and 5). The vowel Sandhi which is invariably applied between the final and initial sounds of the two Padas of a hemistich, must always be resolved to restore the metre. This is another indication (see note on Agne in 6 b) that the second and the first Pada were originally as independent of each other as the second and the third. On the accentuation of supayana as a Bv. see p. 455, c a. sacasva : this verb (which is exclusively Vedic) is construed with the ace. (here nas) or the inst. ; the vowel of sva, the ending of the 2. s. ipv. A., is here (like many other final vowels) lengthened in the Samhita, but is regularly short in the Pada text, svastaye must be read as su-astaye ; it has the sense of a final dat. (200 B 2). It is not analysed in the Pada text because asti does not occur as an independent nominal stem.

SAVIT^l

This god is celebrated in eleven entire hymns and in many detached stanzas as well. He is pre-eminently a golden deity : the epithets golden- eyed, golden-handed, and golden-tongued are peculiar to him. His car and its pole are golden. It is drawn by two or more brown, white-footed horses. He has mighty golden splendour which he diffuses, illuminating heaven, earth, and air. He raises aloft his strong golden arms, with which he arouses and blesses all beings, and which extend to the ends of the earth. He moves in his golden car, seeing all creatures, on a downward and an upward path. Shining with the rays of the sun, yellow-haired, Savitr raises up his light continually from the east. His ancient paths in the air are dustless and easy to traverse, a,nd on them he protects his worshippers ; for he conveys the departed spirit to where the righteous dwell. He removes evil dreams, and makes men sinless; he drives away demons and sorcerers. He observes fixed laws ; the waters and the wind are subject to him. The other gods follow his lead ; and no being can resist his will. In one stanza (iii. 62, 10) he is besought to stimulate the thoughts of worshippers who desire to think of the glory of god Savitr. This is the celebrated Savitri stanza which has been a morning prayer in India for more than three thousand years. Savitr is often distinguished from Snrya (vii. 63), as when he is said to shine with the rays of the sun,

i. 35,1] SAVITR 11

to impel the sun. or to declare men sinless to the sun. But in other passages it is hardly possible to keep the two deities apart.

Savitr is connected with the evening as well as the morning ; for at his command night comes and he brings all beings to rest.

The word Savitr is derived from the root su to stimulate, which is con- stantly and almost exclusively used with it in such a way as to form a perpetual play on the name of the god. In nearly half its occurrences the name is accompanied by deva god, when it means the * Stimulator god '. He was thus originally a solar deity in the capacity of the great stimulator of life and motion in the world.

i. 35. In this hymn Savitr appears as the regulator of time, bringing day and especially night.

The metre of this hymn is Tristubh (p. 441), the commonest in the KV., about two-fifths of which are composed in it. It consists of four verses of eleven syllables identical in construction, and is divided into two hemistichs. The cadence (the last four syllables) is trochaic (— v^ — ^) ; the opening, consisting of either four or five syllables followed by a caesura or metrical pause, is predominantly iambic {^ — '^— or — — — — —), and the break between the caesura and the cadence is regularly w w — or w w. Thus the scheme of the whole normal verse is either — — — — , *^vj— | — w— ^ | or ^ — ^ — ^^ w w I — w — ^ |. The metre of stanzas 1 and 9 is Jagati (p. 442), which consists of four verses of twelve syllables. The Jagati is identical with the Tristubh verse extended by one syllable, which, however, gives the cadence an iambic character (— »^ — w ^). In the first stanza the caesura is always after the fifth syllable, in the second Pada following the first member of a compound.

S:^fiT 1^ 5df^f!Tt^rT^ II ^.^TftT I |^»l^ I ^f^ffT^^ I ^^T^ »

[ hvayami Agnim prathamam / call on Agni first for welfare ;

suastaye ; I call on Mitra-Varuua here for

hvayami Mitravarunav ihavase ; aid ; / call on Night that brings the

12 SAVITR [i. 35, 1

hvayami Ratrim jagato niv6s- world to rest ; I call on god Savitr

anim ; for help.

hvayami devam Savitaram uta-

ye.

hvayami : pr. ind. from hva call ; note the anaphoric repetition of this word at the beginning of each verse, prathamam is in apposition to Agnim. sii-astaye : this, avase, and iitaye are final datives (p. 814, B 2) ; the last two words are derived from the same root, av Jiel2:). svasti (cp. note on i. 1, 9 c) evidently means 2vell- heing ; by Sayana, following Yaska (Nirukta, iii. 21), it is explained negatively as a-vinasa non-destruction. Mitra-varuna : one of the numerous Dvandvas both members of which are dual and accented (p. 269) ; note that Dv. cds. are not analysed in the Pada text, ihavase for iha avase : on the accent see p. 464, 17, 1. jagatas : the objective gen. (p. 320, B 1 h), dependent on nivesanim = that causes the world to 'turn in' (cp. x. 127, 4. 5) ; the cs. nivesayan is applied to Savitr in the next stanza.

|fr ^if^ g^^Tf^ ^^^ II w 1 1^: I ^Tf(7 1 g^^Tf^ i TO'I ii

2 a krsn^na rajasa vartamano, Boiling hither through the dark

nivesayann amrtam martiam space, laying to rest the immortal

ca, and the mortal, on his golden car

hiranyayena Savita rathena, god Savitr comes seeing (all) crea-

a devo yati bhuvanani pasyan. tures.

a vartamanas : the prp. may be separated from a pt. as from a finite vb., p. 462, 13 a ; when it immediately precedes, as in ni- vesayan, it is usually compounded, i^icZ. krsndna rajasa : = through the darkness ; loc. sense of the inst., 119 A 4. amrtam martiam ca s. m. used collectively = gods and men. rathena must of course be read rathenala ; see note on Agne, i. 1, 9 b. a devo yati : cp. note

J. 35, 4] SAVITR 13

on a iha vaksati, i. 1, 2 c. In this and the two following stanzas Savitr is connected with evening.

J yati devah pravata, yati ud- J^/^e ^oc? ^oes &«/ a dowmmrd, he

vata ; ^oes &^ aw upward path ; adorable

yati subhrabhyam yajato hari- he goes with his ttvo bright steeds.

bhyam. God Savitr comes from the distance,

a devo yati Savita paravato, driving away all hardships.

apa visva durita badhamanah.

In this stanza a Jagati verse is combined with a Tristubh in each hemistich. This is quite exceptional in the RV. : see p. 445, /? 1 and f. n. 7. pra-vat-a and ud-vat-a : local sense of the inst. ( 199 A 4) ; note that the suffix vat (p. 263) is in the Pada text treated like the second member of a cd. The downward and upward path refer to the sun's course in the sky. The second yati is accented as beginning a new sentence, haribhyam : inst. in sociative sense ; cp. dev6bhis in i. 1, 5. On the different treatment of subhrabhyam. and haribhyam in the Pada text see note on purvebhis in i. 1, 28. paravato vj pa: see note on Agne in i. 1, 9. paravatas : abl. with verb of motion (201 A 1). apa badhamanas : cp. note on a in 2 c. visva durita : this form of the n. pi. is commoner in the RV. than that in ani ; p. 78, f. n. 14.

flt^^'^ ^^<ft ff ^T?: I ff t^i^^^T^i: I ^^ri: I f f ^5F[^ I

fwr wftr fff^^* ^^T^: ii img: i

li^T I T^ff% I crf^ft^T I ^^T^:

14

SAVITR

[i. 35, 4

4 abhivrtam kfsanair, visvaru- His car adorned ivith pearls.

pam, omniform, with golden inns, lofty,

hiranyasamyam, yajato brhan- tJte adorable Savitr hrigJitly

tarn, lustrous, putting on the dark spaces

asthad ratham Savita citra- and Ms might, has mounted.

bhanuh, krsna rajamsi, tavisim dadha-

nah. The final vowel of abhi is lengthened in the Samhita text, as often when a long vowel is favoured by the metre. The prp. is also accented, this being usual when a prp. is compounded with a pp. (p. 462, 13 1). krsanais : stars are probably meant, as is indicated by x. 68, 11 ; ' the Fathers adorned the sky with stars, like a dark horse with pearls '. visva-rupam : on the accent cp. note on i. 1, 4 b. -samyam : inflected like rathi, p. 87 ; the sami is probably a long pin fixed at each end of the yoke to prevent its slipping off the horse's neck, a asthat : root ao. of stha. krsna rajamsi : = darkness, dadhanas (pr. pt. ; the pf. would be da- dhanas) governs both rajamsi and tavisim = clothing himself in darkness (cp. 2 a) and might, that is, bringing on evening by his might.

_ ^

5 vi janan chyavah sitipado

akhyan, ratham hiranyapraiigam vah-

antah. sasvad visah Savitur daiviasya upasthe visva bhuvanani ta-

sthuh.

w^ I f^^- 1 ^f^g- 1 1^^ '

^tivS^ I f^^i I g^^Tf^ I ^^,: II

His dusky steeds, white-footed, dratving his car tvith golden pole, have surveyed the peoples. For ever the settlers and all creatures have rested in the lap of divine Savitr.

i. 35, 6] SAVITR 15

vi : separated from vb. ; see note on a vaksati, i. 1, 2 c. janan ehyavah. : for janan syavah (40, 1). siti-padas : on the accentua- tion of this Bv. on the final member, see p. 455, c a. Note that the initial a of akhyan remains after o (cp. note on i. 1, 9 b). akhyan : a ao. of khya see (p. 168, a 1), cp. 7 a and 8 a, and pasyan in 2 d ; the ao. expresses a single action that has just taken place (p. 345 C) ; the pf. tasthur expresses an action that has constantly (sasvat) taken place in the past down to the present (113 A a). In -praiigam (analysed by the Pada text of x. 130, 3 as pra-uga), doubtless = pra-yugam (as explained in a Pratisakhya), there is a remarkable hiatus caused by the dropping of y. visva bhiivanani : here the old and the new form of the n. pi. are used side by side, as very often. On the Sandhi of daivyasyopasthe cp. note on Agne, i. 1, 9 b. daivya divine is a variation of the usual deva accompanying the name of Savitr. upasthe : the idea that all beings are con- tained in various deities, or that the latter are the soul (atma) of the animate and inanimate world, is often expressed in the RV.

'mi ^^^ g^% f^TT^TZ I ii^t I ^^^ I g^% i (^tt^tz i Tf #^5 ^ ^ cTfw^fffi: II ^^: I

P I ?^g I ^: I ^ f:fif I cTfir if^'^ct.ll

> tisro dyavah ; Savitiir dva upa- (There are) three heavens : tivo

stham, (are) the laps of Savitr, one over-

6ka Yamasya bhuvane virasat. coming men, (is) in the abode of

anim na rathyam amrtadhi Yama. All immortal things rest

tasthur : (on him) as on the axle-end

iha bravitu ya u tac ciketat. of a car : let him who mag under- stand this tell it here.

The interpretation of this stanza is somewhat difficult ; for it is meant, as the last Pada indicates, as an enigma (like several others in the RV.). The first Pada is evidently intended to explain the

16 SAVITE [i. 35, G

last two of the j^rececling stanza : of the three worlds Savitr occupies two (air and earth). The second Pada adds : the third world (the highest heaven) is the abode of Yam a, in which dwell men after death (that is, the Pitrs). The third Pada means: on Savitr, in these two (lower) worlds, the gods rest, dyavas : N. pi. of dyo, here f. (which is rare) ; probably an elliptical pi. (193, 3 a) = heaven, air, and earth, dva : for dvau before u (22) ; after tisro dyavah the f. form dv6 should strictly be used (like 6ka in b), but it is attracted in gender by the following upastha (cp. 194, 3). upa- stham : the dual ending a (which in the EV. is more than seven times as common as au), appears before consonants, in pausa at the end of a Pada, and in the middle of a Pada before vowels, with which it coalesces. Here it is nasalized (as often elsewhere) before the initial vowel of the following Pada to avoid the hiatus ; this is another indication (cp. note on Agne, i. 1, 9 b) that there was in the original text of the RV. no vowel Sandhi betw^een the Padas of a hemistich, vira-sat : N. s. of vira-sah (81 h), in which there is cere- bralization of s by assimilation to the final cerebral t (for -sat) ; in the first member the quantity of the vowels (for vira) is interchanged for metrical convenience ; the Pada text does not analyse the cd. because the form vira does not occur as an independent word (cp. note on rtvij, i. 1, 1 b). amrta : n. pi. — the gods, anim na : on him, as the car rests on the two ends of the axle which pass through the nave of the Avheels. adhi tasthur : the pf. of stha here takes the ace. by being compounded with adhi ; in 5 d the simple verb takes the loc. The third Pada is only a modification in sense of 5 c d. bravitu : 3. s. ipv. of bru spea7<^ (p. 143, 3 c). The pel. u is always written in the Pada text as a long vowel and nasalized : um iti. ciketat : pf. sb. of cit observe.

I

i- 35, 8] SAVITR

17

7 vi suparno antariksani akhyad, The bird has surveyed the atmo-

gabhiravepa asurah sunithah. spherk regions, the divine spirit, of

kiiedanim suriah ? kas eiketa ? deep inspiration, of good guidance,

katamam dyam rasmir asya Wliere is now the sun? WJio has

tatana ? understood (it) ? To tvhat heaven

has his ray extended ?

7-9 deal with Savitr as guiding the sun.

vi . . . akhyat : cp. 5 a and 8 a. suparnas : Savitr is here called a bird, as the sun-god Surya (vii. 63) often is. On the accent of this Bv. and of su-nithas see p. 455, c a. antariksani ; equivalent to krsna rajamsi (4 d), the aerial spaces when the sun is absent, asuras : this word, which is applied to various gods in the EV., but especially to Varuna, and in the Avesta, as ahura, is the name of the highest god, means a divine being possessed of occult power; towards the end of the Rigvedic period it gradually lost this sense and came to mean a higher hostile power, celestial demon, su- nithas : guiding well here means that the sun illumines the paths with his light, kvedanim : when an independent Svarita is in the Samhita text immediately followed by an Udatta, the Svarita vowel, if long, has added to it the figure 3, which is marked with both Svarita and Anudatta (p. 450 h). idanim : notv = at night eiketa : pf. of eit observe (139, 4). dyam : ace. of dyo (p. 94, 3), here again (cp. 6 a) f. asya : = asya L tatana : pf. of tan stretch (cp. 137, 2 h). The question here asked, where the sun goes to at night, is parallel to that asked about the stars in i. 24, 10: 'those stars which are seen at night placed on high, where have they sone by day?' . ^

— vs.

V^K I Tm I ^T^ I ^T^tftr II

190-2

18

SAVITR

[i. 35, 8

Tf^

8 astau vi akhyat kakiibhahprthi-

vyas, tri dhanva, yojana, sapta sin-

dhun. hiranyaksah Savita deva agad, dadhad ratna dasiise variani.

He has surveyed the eight peaks of the earth, the three waste lands, the leagues, the seven rivers. Golden-eyed god Savitr has come, bestowing desirable gifts on the worshipper.

The general meaning of this stanza is that Savitr surveys all space : the mountains, the plains, the rivers, and the regions between heaven and earth, astau : 106 b. prthivyas : on the accentuation see p. 458, 2. tri : n. pi. (105, 3) to be read disyllabically. dhanva : ace. pi. of dhanvan n., 90, 3 (p. 70 ; cp. p. 67, bottom). The long syllable after the caesura in b and d (— w — for w w — ) is rare in the KV. (p. 440, 4 B). yojana : probably the thirty leagues that Dawn traverses in the sky (i. 123, 8), the number of each of the other features being expressly stated, hiranyaksas : the accent of this cd. as a Bv. is quite exceptional : p. 455 c. a-agat : root ao. of ga go. dadhat : on the accent cp. 127, 2 ; on the formation of the stem, 156.

9 hiranyapanih Savita vicarsanir ubh6 dyavaprthivi antar iyate. apamivam badhate; v^tisuriam; abhi krsn^na rajasa dyam rnoti.

Golden-handed Savitr, the active, goes between both heaven and earth. He drives aivay disease ; he guides the sun ; through the dark space he penetrates to heaven.

Dyava-prthivi : with the usual double accent of Devatfi-dvandvas (p. 457, e P) and not analysed in the Pada text (cp. note on 1 b). Its final 1, as well as the e of ubh6, l)eing Pragrhya (25 a, 26 a), is followed ])y iti in i he Pada text (p. 25, f. n. 2). antar (46) com-

i. 35, 10] SAVITR 19

bined with i go governs the ace. ; cp. the two laps of Savitr in 6 a. apa badhate : he drives away disease, cp. 3d; contrary to the general rule (p. 466, 19 A) the vb. is here accented ; this irregularity not infrequently occurs when in the same Pada a compound verb is immediately followed by a simple vb. vdti : accented because it begins a new sentence ; Savitr guides the sun : cp. 7 c. krsn^na rajasa : cp. 2 a and 4 d. abhi . . . dyam rnoti ; cp. 7 d. The metre of d is irregular : it is a Tristubh of twelve syllables, the first two syllables (abhi) taking the place of a long one. Cp. p. 441, 4 a and p. 445, B 1.

^^t^w: iTf?r^^ ^WT^: II ^^Tfi: 1 1^: i iRf^^j^^^R; i ^mm \\

0 hiranyahasto asurah sunithah, Let the golden-handed divine

sumrlikah suavam yatu arvan. spirit, of good guidance, most

apasedhan raksaso yatudhanan, gracious, aiding tvelJ, come hither,

asthad devah pratidosam grna- Chasing away demons and sorcerers,

nah. the god heing lauded has arisen

towards eventide.

asuras : cp. 7 b. svavan : the analysis of the Pada text, sva- van = possessed of property, is followed by Sayana who renders it by dhanavan wealthy ; this would mean that Savitr bestows wealth (cp. dadhad ratna in 8 d, and vi. 71, 4 a dasiise suvati bhuri vamam he, Savitr, brings much ivealth to the tvorsMpper). This nom. occurs several times in the RV., and is always analysed in the same way by the Padapatha. On the other hand, three oblique cases of su-avas giving good help occur (svavasam, svavasa, svavasas). Roth takes svavan to be a nom. of this stem irregularly formed by analogy for su-avas (cp. 83, 2 a). I follow the Pada text as the meaning is sufficiently good. Final an, which regulai-ly becomes am before vowels (39), sometimes undergoes the same change before y (40, 4). raksasas has the accent of a m. in as (83, 2 a) ; the n. form is raksamsi. yatudhanan is added, as is oCten the case, without

c 2

20 SAVITR [i. 35, 10

ii connecting ca : cp. note on rayim, in i. 1, 3a; note that the ^ Sandhi of an before vowels (39) does not apply at the end of an internal Pada. If Savitr in this stanza is connected with morning rather than evening, asthat would here be equivalent to lid asthat ; cp. EV. vi. 71, 4 : lid u sya devah. Savita damuna hiranyapanih pratidosam asthat that god Savitr, the domestic friend, the golden- handed, has arisen toivards eventide ; it may, however, be equivalent to a asthat, that is, he has mounted his car, cp. 4 c. grnanas : pr. pt. A., with ps. sense, of 1. gr sing, greet.

cjci % % ^^+: ^f^rr: 5^1^ %\\\ tiisfi: 1 ^ft<Tftf^ 1 I^t^ec: i

T^i ^ ^ ^fti ^ ^ff ^^ II T^ I ? I ^M "^fti I ^ I fff 1 1^ II

11 y^tepanthah, Savitahjpurviaso, Thine ancient paths, 0 Savitr,

arenavah siikrta antarikse, the dustless, the ivell made, in the

t^bhir n6 adya pathibhih sug6- air, (going) hy those paths easij to

bhi traverse x^fotect us to-day, and speaJc

raksa ca no, adtii ca bruhi, for us, 0 god.

deva.

te : the dat. and gen. of tvam, is always unaccented ; while t6, N. pi. m. and N. A. du. f. n. of ta, is always t6. panthas : N. pi. of pantha, m. p>ath, which is the only stem (not panthan) in the RV. (99, 1 a). Savitah : when final Visarjnniya in the Samhita text represents original r, this is always indicated by the word being written with r followed by iti in the Pada text*; here Savitar iti. 'renavas : the initial a must be restored (see note on Agne, i. 1, 9 b ; but a is not elided after o in c and d) ; on the accent of a Bv. formed with privative a, see p. 455, c a. sii-krtas : Karmadharayas, in which the first meml^er is an adv. and the last a pp., accent the former ; p. 456, 1 a. t^bhis : inst. of ta, p. 106 ; p. 457, 11 h. In c n6 adya should be pronounced because e and o are sliortened before a {\\ 437, a 4) ; tliis rule does not apply when e and o are separated from a by the caesura ; hence in d 6, adhi should ))e pronounced, sug^bhi : see 47. The final a of raksa is lengthened because the

i. 85] MAEUTS 21

second syllable of the Padn favours a long vowel, adhi . . . bruhi : he our advocate; the meaning of this e.xpression is illustrated by other passages : in i. 123, 3 Savitr is besought to report to Surya that his w^orshippers are sinless ; in vii. 60, 2 Surya is implored to make a similar report to the Adityas.

MARUTAS

This group of deities is prominent in the RV., thirty-three hymns being addressed to them alone, seven to them with India, and one each to them with Agni and Pusan (vi. 54). They form a troop (gana, sardhas), being mentioned in the plural only. Their number is thrice sixty or thrice seven. They are the sons of Rudra (ii. 83) and of Prsni, who is a cow (probably representing the mottled storm-cloud). They are further said to have been generated by Yayu, the god of Wind, in the wombs of heaven, and they are called the sons of heaven; but they are also spoken of as self-born. They are brothers equal in age and of one mind, having the same birthplace and the same abode. They have grown on earth, in air, and in heaven, or dwell in the three heavens. The goddess Rodasi is always mentioned in connexion with them ; she stands beside them on their car, and thus seems to have been regarded as their bride.

The brilliance of the Maruts is constantly referred to : they are golden, ruddy, shine like fires, and are self-luminous. They are very often asso- ciated with lightning : all the five compounds of vidyut in the RV. are almost exclusively descriptive of them. Their lances represent lightning, as their epithet rsti-vidyut lightning- speared shows. They also have golden axes. They are sometimes armed with bows and arrows, but this trait is probably borrowed from their father Rudra. They wear garlands, golden mantles, golden ornaments, and golden helmets. Armlets and anklets (khadi) are peculiar to them. The cars on which they ride gleam with lightning, and are drawn by steeds (generally feminine) that are ruddy or tawny, spotted, swift as thought. They are great and mighty ; young and unaging ; dustless, fierce, terrible like lions, but also playful like children or calves.

The noise made by them, and often mentioned, is thunder and the roaring of the winds. They cause the mountains to quake and the two worlds to tremble ; they rend trees, and, like wild elephants, devour the forests. One of their main activities is to shed rain : they cover the eye of the sun with rain ; they create darkness with the cloud when they shed rain ; and they cause the heavenly pail and the streams of the mountains to pour. The waters they shed are often clearly connected with the thunder-

22 MAKUTS [i. 85, i

storm. Their rain is often figuratively called milk, gliee, or honey. They avert heat, but also dispel darkness, produce light, and prepare a path for the sun.

They are several times called singers : they are the singers of heaven ; they sing a song ; for Indra when he slew the dragon, they sang a song and pressed Soma. Though primarily representing the sound of the winds, their song is also conceived as a hymn of praise. Thus they come to be compared with priests, and are addressed as priests when in the company of Indra.

Owing to their connexion with the thunderstorm, the Maruts are con- stantly associated with Indra (ii. 12) as his friends and allies, increasing his strength and prowess with their prayers, hymns, and songs, and generally assisting him in the fight with Vrtra. Indra indeed accomplishes all his celestial exploits in their company. Sometimes, however, the Maruts accomplish these exploits alone. Thus they rent Vrtra joint from joint, and disclosed the cows.

When not associated with Indra, the Maruts occasionally exhibit the maleficent traits of their father Rudra. Hence they are implored to ward off the lightning from their worshippers and not to let their ill-will reach them, and are besought to avert their arrow and the stone which they hurl, their lightning, and their cow- and man-slaying bolt. But like their father Rudra, they are also supplicated to bring healing remedies. These remedies appear to be the waters, for the Maruts bestow medicine b}^ raining.

The evidence of the RV. indicates that the Maruts are Storm-gods. The name is probably derived from the root mar, 1o shine, thus meaning ' the shining ones '.

i. 85. Metre : Jagati ; 5 and 12 Tristubh.

J{if^ ^TT f^^% ^^: II 1^ I

^^f^ I ^Tt: I f^^ I ^^^: II

1 pra y6 siimbhante, janayo na, The wondrous sons of Eudra,

saptayo the racers, tvho on their course

yaman, Rudrasya sunavah su- adorn themselves like women, the

damsasah, Maruts have indeed made the two

i. 85, 3] MARUTS 23

rodasi hi Marutas cakrir^ vr- worlds to increase. The impetuous dh6. heroes rejoice in rites of worship.

madanti vira vidathesu ghrsva- yah.

janayas : 99, 1 a. yaman : loc, 90, 2. sudamsasas : accent, p. 455, 10 c a. cakrir^ : 3. pi. A. pf. of kr ; with dat. inf., p. 334, b. madanti : with loc, 204, 1 a. vidathesu : the etymology and precise meaning of this word have been much discussed. It is most probably derived from vidh tvorship (cp. p. 41, f. n. 1), and means divine worship,

^f>^ f^r^t ^f^T ^f^TfTT: II ^fti I f^: I ff^^: I gftr^J^TfTT: ii

2 ta uksitaso mahimanam asata : Thei/ having waxed strong have

divlRudrasoadhicakriresadah. attained greatness: in heaven the

arcanto arkam, janayanta indri- Rudras have made their abode.

yam, Singing their song and generating

adhi sriyo dadhire Prsnima- the might of Indra, they whose

tarah. mother is Prsni have put on glory.

t6 : N. pi. m. of ta that, 110. uksitasas : pp. of 2. uks (= vaks) grow, asata : 3. pi. A. root ao. of ams attain. Rudrasas : the Maruts are often called ' Rudras ' as equivalent to ' sons of Rudra '. adhi : prp. with the loc. divi ; 176, 2. janayanta indriyam : that is, by their song, adhi dadhire : 3. pi. A. pf. of adhi dha, which is especially often used of putting on ornaments, sriyas : A. pi. of sri glory ; referring to the characteristic brilliance of the Maruts.

^ ^^Tf!T^ ^^^^^^ ^%fiT^ ^vf^fTT: I ^^1 ^^^^ I ^f^vJfn: I

^(SRT^^T^^ f\^% ^fTT^^ H ^cRTf^ I ^^TJR: I ^^ I T^^ I ^rT^ It

24

MARUTS

[i. 85,

3 gomataro yac chubhayante aiiji-

bhis, tanusu subhra dadhire viriik-

matah. badhante visvam abhimatinam

apa. vartmani esam anu riyate

ghrtam.

When they ivhose mother is a cow deck themselves with ornaments, shining they put on their 'bodies hrilliant weapons. They drive off every adversary. Fatness flows along their tracks.

gomataras : as the sons of the cow Prsni. yac chubhayante : Sandhi, 53. dadhire : pf. with pr. sense, they have put on = they wear. apa : prp. after the vb. and separated from it by other words, 191 /; p. 468, 20. anu riyate : 3. pi. A. pr. of ri flotv. ghrtam : ghee = fertilizing rain. The meaning of d is : the course of the Maruts is followed by showers of rain, esam : unemphatic G. pi. m. of ayam, p. 452, 8 B c.

^ f^ ^ mw% ^^mm ^f%^: f% I % I '^T^^ I gi^^T^: i ^fn

- _ N» -

vi y^ bhrajante sumakhasa rsti-

bhih, pracyavayanto acyuta cid ojasa, manojiivo yan, Maruto, ra-

thesu a vrsavratasah prsatir ayug-

dhuam ;

Who as great ivarriors shine forth with their spears, overthrow- ing even ivhat has never been over- thrown ivith their might : tvhen ye, 0 Maruts, that are sivift as thought, ivith your strong hosts, have yoked the spotted mares to your cars,

siimakhasas : a Karmadharaya cd. according to its accent (cp. p. 455, 10 c a), but the exact meaning of makha is still somewhat uncertain, pra-cyavayantas : pr. pt. of cs. of cyu 7nove ; though this cs., which occurs frequently in the RV., always has a long

i. 85, 6] MAEUTS 25

radical vowel in the Samhita text, it invariably has a short vowel in the Padapatha. Marutas : change from the 3. to the 2. prs., in the same sentence, a not infrequent transition in the RV. manojuvas : N. pi. radical u stem mano-ju, 100, II a (p. 88). rathesu a : 176, 2. prsatis : the spotted mares that draw the cars of the Maruts. ayugdhvam : 2. pi. A. root ao. of yuj yoke.

^m^^^ f^ ^f^ ^TT.T'l ^fT I ^^TO I f^ I ^% I ^ttt: I ^ii^f'T^^f^ ^ II ^Hvj^^ I ^s^i I f^ I ^^f^ I

pra yad rathesu prsatir ayug- ivJien ye have yoked the spotted

dhvam, mares before your cars, speeding, 0

vaje adrim, Maruto, ramha- Maruts, the stone in the conflict,

yantah, they discharge the streams of the

utarusasya vi sianti dharas ruddy (steed) and moisten the earth

carmevodabhir vi undanti bhu- like a shin with ivaters, ma.

ayugdhvam : with loc, cp. 204, 1 b. adrim : the Maruts hold lightning in their hands and cast a stone, uta : here comes before the first instead of the second of two clauses, as ca sometimes does (p. 228, 1). arusasya : the ruddy steed of heaven ; cp. v. 83, 6 where the Maruts are invoked to pour forth the streams of the stallion ; and in v. 56, 7 their ruddy steed (vaji arusah) is spoken of. vi syanti: 3. pi. pr. of sa lind ] Sandhi, 67 a ;, change back from 2. to 3. prs. ; cp. 4 c d. undanti : 3. pi. pr. of ud ivet. bhuma : N. of bhuman n. earth (but bhuman m. abundance).

\ w ^ ^v^ ^H^ T^^Ct w I ^: I ^f ^5 I ■^^■^^ i TH^J^: i T^w^: IT f^'ncT ^T¥"fy: i t^^^^t^: i it i f^'rj^ i ^T:FvSf*r: i ^^riT ^ff ^^ ^: ^r^fi ^^rr i ^ i ^ff : i ^^ i ^: i ^^: i m^^^ i?^cft w^_ ^5«r^: II fffT*^ I

^T^^'t^ I ^^ct: I ^^: I ^5^^: ii

26

MARUTS

[i.

G a vo vahantu saptayo raghu- Let your smft-yliding racers

syado ; bring you hither. Sivift-flying come

raghupatvanah pra jigata bahii- forward ivith your arms. Sit down

bliih. on the sacrificial grass : a ivide

sidata barhir : urii vah sadas seat is made for you. Rejoice, 0

krtam. Maruts, in the sweet juice. madayadhvam, Maruto, madh-

v6 andhasah.

raghu-syadas : Sandhi, 67 &. raghupatvanas : as belonging to this Pada to be taken with pra jigata (ga go), bahubhis : with outstretched arms as they drive, sidata a : 2. pi. ipv. pr. of sad sit with prp. following (p. 468, 20). sadas : Sandhi, 43, 2 a. krtam : as finite vb., 208. madayadhvam : cs. of mad rejoice, with gen., 202 A Jj. madhvas : gen. n. of madhu, p. 81, f. n. 12 ; the sweet juice is Soma.

^ I ^^^'^ I ^vJrT^^: I ^vf^^T I W I ^T^^l rT^: I ^^1 ^ftSTI ^^« I f^^: I ^fi; I f I ^ci; I f 4t!I^ I

^^: I ^ I ^5^1: 1 ^f^ I ^t^ I ft% II

7 te 'vardhanta svatavaso mahi- Self-strong they greiv by their

tvana : greatness : they have mounted to the

a nakam tasthur; urii cakrire firmament; they have made for them-

sadah. Visnur yad dhavad vrsanam

madacyutam, vayo na sidann adhi barhisi

priy6.

td 'vardhanta: Sandhi accent, p. 465, 17, 3. mahitvana : inst. of mahitvana, p. 77, f. n. 3. a tasthur : vb. of a i)rincipal sentence

selves a ivide seat. When Visnu helped the bull reeling tvith intoxi- cation, they sat down upon their beloved sacrificial grass like birds.

i. 85, 9] MARUTS 27

accented according to p. 468, fS. Visnus : the mention of wide space (a conception intimately connected with Visnu, cp. uru-gaya, &c.) in 6 c and 7 b has here probably suggested the introduction of Visnu (i. 154), who is in various passages associated with the Maruts (especially in v. 87) and who also forms a dual divinity (fndra-Visnu) with Indra. dha : Sandhi, 54. avat : 3. s. ipf. of av favour ; Visnu helps Indra, aided by the Maruts, in his conflicts, vrsan : dec, 90, 1 ; both this word and madacyut are applied to Soma as well as Indra, but the meaning of the vb. av and the use of the ipf. are in favour of Indra being intended, the sense then being : ' when Visnu and Indra, associated in conflict, came to the Soma offering, the Maruts, their companions, came also.' vayas : N. pi. of vi bird, sidan : unaugmented ipf. of sad sit,

'T^^ f^^T g^'-sTT ^^wt ^^^^: I ^ I ^fi^Tg i ^fW^ i TT^t^ T^ ^^^f ^ "^V II *f^^ I f^^T I g^'fi I 'T^fi^i^: I

TT^T^tvJ^^ I ^^vj^'fir: I ^t- II

8 sura iv6d yiiyudhayo na jagma- LiJce heroes, speeding like war-

yah, riors, like fame-seeking (men) they

sravasyavo na prtanasu yetire. have arrayed themselves in battles.

bhayante visva bhiivana Mariid- A U creatures fear the Maruts : the

bhio : men are like kings of terrible

raj ana iva tvesasamdrso narah. aspect.

iva : note how this pel. interchanges with na in this stanza, yetire : 3. pi. pf. A. of yat : 137, 2 a. bhayante : 3. pi. pr. A. of bhi fear ; the pr. stem according to the bhu class is much commoner in the EV. than that according to the third class. Mariidbhyas : 201 A b. naras : the Maruts ; N. pi. of nr man, 101, 1.

e ^FT ^T^ gim ffT^^ <3f^T I ^fT. I ^^ I g^lfffll ffT-

28 MARUTS [i. 85, o

si-f^ 1^xmwl^^4y(T{^ II \a% I x^'" I ^fr i ^mf% i ^i^ i

"^i^ 1 1^'^ I f^: I ^m^, I #^ci. I ^xg^»l II

9 Tvasta yad vajram sukrtam When the sidlful Tvastr had

hiranyayam turned the tvell-made, golden,

sahasrabhrstim suapa avarta- thousand-edged holt, Indra took it

yat, to perform manly deeds : he slew

dhatta Indro nariapamsi kar- Vrtra, and drove out the flood of

tave : tvaters. ahan Vrtram, nir apam aubjad

arnavam.

The association of ideas connecting Indra with the Maruts is continued from 7 c d. That Tvastr fashioned Indra's bolt for him is mentioned, in a similar context, in i. 32, 1 c and 2 b : ahann ahim, anv apas tatarda ; Tvasta asmai vajram svaryam tataksa he slew the serpent, he released the waters ; Tvastr fashioned for him the whizzing holt, dhatta : 3. s. pr. A. used in the past sense (212 A 2). kartave : dat. inf. of purpose, in order to perform (kr), 211. narya- pamsi is here and in viii. 96, 19 analysed by the Pada text as nari apamsi. The only possible sense of these words would be deeds against the hero (Yrtra). On the other hand naryani appears once (vii. 21, 4) and narya twice (iv. 19, 10 ; viii. 96, 21) as an attribute of apamsi ; the epithet naryapasam, analysed by the Padapatha (viii. 93, 1) as narya-apasam doing manly deeds is applied to Indra. It thus seems preferable to make the slight emendation naryapamsi (to be read nariapamsi) in the Samhita text, and narya|apamsi in the Pada text, nir aubjat : 3. s. ipf. of ubj force (cp. 23 c).

«^0 ^ ^^i^ff fT ^^^T ^J^ I ^^ I ^^^^ I % I ^^^T I

^Tf f THi f^fS[f»Tf ff xi^rT^ I f f f TUm; I f^cT I f^f^^: I f^ I

i. 85, 11]

^^ ^»T^ TMlf^ ^ftR^

MARUTS

29

TJiei/ have pushed up the tvell tvith might; they have split even the firm mountain. Blowing their pipes the hountiful Maruts have performed glorious deeds in the intoxication of Soma.

0 urdhvam nunudre avatam ta

ojasa; dadrhanam cid bibhidur vi par-

vatam. dhamanto vanam Marutah suda-

navo made somasya raniani cakrire.

urdhvam : have pressed (the bottom) upward, that is, overturned, poured out ; avatam : the cloud ; = they have shed rain, dadrhanam : pf. pt. A. of drh malie firm, with long red. vowel (139, 9), shortened in the Pada text, bibhidur vi : p. 468, 20. parvatam : cloud mountain ; another way of saying the same thing, dhamantas : with reference to the sound ]nade by the Maruts ; cp. arcantas, 2 c. made somasya : Indra is constantly said to perform his mighty deeds in the intoxication of Soma, so his associates the Maruts are here similarly described.

^T^ f^T{W f!^^nT ^T^fi^:

f^^i I 5^1; I ^^^'i I ^^T I f^^T I ^ftr^^ I ^(^^ I ^rr^^ I g^vj^ i w I ^f^ I t^ I ^^^T I f^^ im^^: I

^JT(^ I ftlt^ I ff^^'rr I VJTiTvjfiT: II

11 jihmam nunudre avatam taya

disa : asincann utsam Gotamaya trs-

naje. a gachantim avasa citrabhana-

vah : kamam viprasya tarpayanta

dhamabhih.

They have pushed athwart the ivell in that direction : they poured out the spring for the thirsty Gotama. Of hrilliant splendour they approach him with help; may they satisfy the desire of the sage hy their powers.

30 MAR UTS [i. 85, 11

jihmam : so as to be horizontal and pour out the water, much the same as urdhvam in 10 a. taya disa : this expression is obscure ; it may mean, in the quarter in which Gotama was ; cp. 199 A 4. im : him, Gotama, p. 220. viprasya : of Gotama. tarpayanta : cs. of trp he pleased ; the inj. is more natural here, coming after a pr., than an unaugmented ipf. would be.

<^^ ^T ^: ^^' ^iTiTT^T^ ^f^ ^r I ^: I n^ i ^^^t^t^ i ^f^ i

12 ya vah sarma sasamanaya sauti, The shelters which you have for

tridhatuni dasiise yachatadhi. the zealous man, extend them three-

asmabhyam tani, Maruto, vi fold to the worshipper. Extend

yanta. them to us, 0 Maruts. Bestoiv on

rayim no dhatta, vrsanah, su- ^^5 ivealth together ivitli excellent

viram. heroes, mighty ones*

sarma : N. pi. n. (90, 2) sasamanaya : pf. pt. A. of sam labour. tridhatuni : used appositionally (198). dasiise : dat. of dasvams, 157 5. yachata adhi : prp. after vb., p. 468, 20 ; ipv. pr. of yam stretch, asmabhyam : p. 104. vi yanta : 2. pi. ipv. root ao. of yam stretch (cp. p. 172, 5). dhatta : 2. pi. ipv. of dha put (p. 144 B h). su-viram : that is, accompanied by warrior sons ; cp. viravattamam, i. 1, 3 c.

ViSNU

This deity occupies a subordinate position in the RV., being celebrated in only five or six hymns. The only anthroponiorphic traits mentioned about him are the strides he takes, and the description of him as a youth vast in body who is no longer a child. The central feature of his nature consists in his three steps, connected with which are his exclusive epithets 'wide-going' (uru-gay^) and 'wide-striding' ( uru-kramd). With these steps he traverses the earth or the terrestrial spaces. Two of his stei)s are visible to men, but the third or hi<^hest is beyond the flii>ht ol' birds or

i. 154, l]

VISNU

mortal ken. His highest step is like an eye fixed in heaven ; it shines brightly down. It is his dear abode, where pious men and the gods rejoice. There can be no doubt that these three steps refer to the course of the sun, and in all probability to its passage through the three divisions of the world : earth, air, and heaven. Visnu sets in motion like a revolving wheel his ninety steeds (= days) with their four names ( = seasons), an allusion to the three hundred and sixty days of the solar year. Thus Visnu seems to have been originally a personification of the activity of the sun, the swiftly- moving luminary that with vast strides passes through the whole universe. Visnu takes his steps for man's existence, to bestow the earth on him as a dwelling. The most prominent secondary characteristic of Visnu is his friendship for Indra, with whom he is often allied in the fight with Vrtra. In hymns addressed to Visnu alone, Indra is the only other deity inci- dentally associated with him. One hymn (vi. 69) is dedicated to the two gods conjointly. Through the Vrtra myth the Maruts, Indra's companions, are drawn into alliance with Visnu, who throughout one hymn (v. 87) is praised in combination with them.

The name is most probably derived from vis be active, thus meaning ' the active one '.

i. 154. Metre: Tristubh.

ft^f: I g I ^»l I ^iftr I IT I ^: I mf^^TfiT I f^^^ I T^ftf I

^: I ^WT^^I^cl^ifTT^I^^i^^l

f^^^5RTnw: I %^T I ^^vj'TT^: ii

1 Visnor nu kam viriani pra vo-

cam, yah parthivani vimam^ rajamsi; yo askabhayad littaram sadha-

stham, vicakramanas tredhorugayah.

I ivUl noiv proclaim the heroic poicers of Visnu, who has measured out the terrestrial regions ; who estahlished the upper gathering- place, having, tvide-paced, strode out trip)ly.

kam : this pel. as an end. always follows nii, sii or hi (p. 225, 2). viryani : the syllable preceding the so-called independent Svarita

32 VISNU [i. 154, 1

(p. 448) is marked with the Anudatta in the same way as that ijreceding the Udatta ; here we have, as usual, in reality the depen- dent Svarita, the word having to be pronounced viriani. pra vocam : inj. ao. of vac, 147, 3. parthivani rajamsi : the earth and the contiguous air. vi-mam6 : this refers to the sun traversing the universe ; cp. what is said of Varuna in v. 85, 5 : maneneva tasthivam antarikse vi yo marn^ prthivim suryena ivlio standing in the air has measured out the earth with the sun, as with a measure, askabhayat : ipf. of skabh prop ; the cosmic action of supporting the sky is also attributed to Savifcr, Agni, and other deities, littaram sadhastham : that is, heaven, as opposed to the terrestrial spaces in b, according to the twofold division of the world, vicakram- anas : pf. pt. A. of kram. tre-dha : with his three steps ; the first syllable must be pronounced with a slur equivalent to two short syllables (^ <j) ; the resolution tredha urugayah would produce both an abnormal break and an abnormal cadence (p. 441, top).

^f^f^^fi^ g^^Tf^ f^^t II ^f^vjf^^f^ I g^^Tf^ I f%^f II

2 pra tad Visnuh stavate viriena^ By reason of his heroic poiver,

mrgo na bhimah kucaro girl- like a dread heast that wanders at

sthah, tvill, that haunts the mountains,

yasyoriisu trisii vikramanesu. Vimu is praised aloud for thai :

adhiksiyanti bhiivanani visva. he in tvhose three ivide strides all

beings divelU

pra stavate : A. of stu in the ps. sense, as is often the case when the pr. stem is formed according to the first (and not the second) class, tad: the cognate ace. (p. 300, A) referring to the heroic ])owers of Visnu attributed to him in the preceding stanza, virydna : cp. not(^ on viryani in 1 a. mrgas : Sayana here interprets this

i. 154, 3] VISNU 33

word to mean a beast of prey such as a lion ; but though bhima occurs as an attribute both of simha lion and of vrsabha hull in the RV., giristha is found three or four times applied to the latter and never to the former, and in the next stanza Visnu is called a ' mountain-dwelling bull ' ; hence the simile appears to allude to a bull rather than a lion, ku-cara : Yaska, followed by Sayana, has two explanations of this word, doing ill (ku = kutsitam karma hlametvorthy deed) or going anyivhere (kva ay am na gachati where does he not go?). Note that the word is not analysed in the Pada text because ku does not occur as an independent word. Sayana has two explanations of giristhas : dwelling in a lofty tvorld or always abiding in speech (girl as loc. of gir) consisting of 3fantras, &c. (!) ; on the inflexion see 97, 2 ; note that in the analysis of the Pada text the change caused by internal Sandhi in the second member is, as always, removed, vikramanesu : note that the final vowel of the Pada must be restored at the junction with the next Pada. adhi-ksiyanti : the root 1. ksi follows the ad class (ks6ti) when it means divell, but the bhu class (ksayati) when it means rule over. With c and d cp. what is said of Savitr in i. 35, 5,

^ \t ^ ^^ ^w^ ^: I T^^ I ^^1 1 iT^^fT^ I ^y

'mi f^^ f^fHfTr^tf*^: II vJ^I I

U^: I f^J^^ I f^if^: I T^ I ^^f*T: ii

3 pra Visnave susam etu manma^ Let my inspiring hymn go forth

giriksita urugayaya vrsne, for Visnu, the mountain- dwelling

ya idam dirgham prayatam sa- toide-pacing hull, who alone with

dhastham hut three steps has measured out

6ko vimam6 tribhir it pad^- this long far-extended gathering-

bhih. ; place ;

susam: the u must be slurred disyllabically (=w«^). idam sadhastham : of course the earth as opposed to littaram sadhastham in 1 c. 6kas and tribhis are antithetical, id emphasizes the latter

1902 J)

34 VISNU [i. ]54, 3

word : tvitli only three. The second Pada of this stanza is parallel to the third of the preceding, the epithets in the former being applied direct to Visnu, in the latter to the wild beast to which Visnu is compared : giriksit = giristha ; urugaya = kucara ; vrsan = rnrgd bhimah. This correspondence of kucara (besides V.'s alterna- tive exclusive epithet urukrama in 5 c and elsewhere) confirms the explanation of urugaya as tvide-paclng from ga go (Yaska, mahagati having a tvide gait), and not widely swrig from ga sing (Say ana).

XTifi: I \iyi:\T. \ g^^f^ i f^^i ii

4 yasya tri purna madhuna pa- Whose three steps filled ivith

dani mead, unfailing, rejoice in bliss;

aksiyamana svadhaya madanti ; and who in threefold wise alone

ya u tridhatu prthivira uta has supported earth and heaven,

dyam and all beings. Hko dadhara bhuvanani visva.

tri : n. pi. of tri (105, 3). padany : the final vowel of the Pada must be restored ; cp. 2 c. purna : cp. p. 308 d. aksiyamana : never failing in mead ; the privative pel. a is almost invariably accented in Karmadharayas, p. 456 a (top) ; such negative cds. are not analysed in the Pada text, svadhaya : inst. with verbs of rejoicing (p. 308 c). madanti : his footsteps rejoice, that is, those dwelling in them do so. u : = also (p. 221, 2). tri-dhatu : this n. form is best taken adverbially = iredha in 1 d, in a threefold tvay, by taking his three steps. It might, however, mean the threefold world, loosely explained by the following earth and heaven. 6kas : alone in antithesis to visva, cp. 3 d. dadhara : pf. of dhr, with long red. vowel (139, 9), whiclf is here not shortened in the Pada text.

i. 154, 6]

f^wf: ^^ 4t^ t^ ^m:

VISNU 85

^vj^^^ I ^: I ff I ^^, I ^?eTT I

i tad asya priyam abhi patho

asyam, naro yatra devayavo madanti : urukramasya sa hi bandhur

ittha, Visnoh pad6 paramd madhva

utsah.

I would attain to that dear domain of his. tvhere men devoted to the gods rejoice : for that, trull/ akin to the wide-strider, is a well of mead in the highest step of Visnu.

abhi asyam : op. root ao. of ams reach, yatra : in the third step of Visnu = heaven, where the Fathers drink Soma with Yama (cp. i. 35, 6). naras : that is, pious men who dwell in heaven ; N. pi. of nr, 101, 1. sa : referring to pathas is attracted in gender to bandhus, 194, 3. ittha: p. 218. madhvas (gen., p. 81, n. 12): cp. 4 a, where the three steps are filled with mead ; but the third step is its special abode.

c!T I ^T^ I mml^ I ^T^ftr 1 1^ i ^^ I ini: I ^fr^J^WT: i ^^to: i

^^ I ^ I fTfl. I ^vJ'TT^^ I f ^: I

^^T^ I ^^1 1 '^i I 'TTf^r I gfT II

6 ta vam vastiini usmasi gama- We desire to go to those abodes

dhyai, of you two, where are the many-

yatra gavo bhiirisrnga ayasah : horned nimble kine : there indeed

atraha tad urugayasya vrsnah that highest step of the wide-pacing

paramam padam ava bhati bull shines brightly down.

bhuri.

D 2

36 VISNU [i. 154, 6

vam : of you hvo, that is, of Indra and Visnu. The former, being the only other god with whom Visnu is intimately associated, would easily be thought of incidentally in a hymn addressed to Visnu alone ; this dual also anticipates the joint praise of these two gods as a dual divinity (Indra- Visnu) in the first two stanzas of the next hymn (i. 155). usmasi : 1. pi. pr. of vas desire (134, 2 a), gam- adhyai i dat. inf., p. 193, 7. gavas : N. pi. of go cotv (102, 2} ; it is somewhat doubtful what is meant by the cows ; they are explained by Yaska and Sayana as rays ; this is a probable sense, as the rays of dawn are compared with cattle, and something connected with sunlight is appropriate to the third step of Visnu, the realm of light. Eoth explains gavas as stars, but there is little to support this interpretation, bhiiri-srngas : many-horned would allude to the diffusion of the sunbeams in many directions, ayasas : this form is understood as a N. pi. of aya (from i go) by Yaska, who explains it as ayanas moving, and by Sayana as gantaras goers = ativistrtas very widely diffused ; but the occurrence of the A. s. ayasam, the G. pi. ayasam, as well as the A. pi. ayasas, indicates that the stem is ayas ; while its use as an attribute of simha lion, asva horse, and often of the Maruts, shows that the meaning must be active, stvift, nimble, aha : on the use of this pel. see p. 216. vf snas : cp. 3 b.

DYAVA-PRTHIvi

Heaven and Earth are the most frequently named pair of deities in the RV. They are so closely associated that, while they are invoked as a pair in six hymns, Dyaus is never addressed alone in any hymn, and Prthiv in only one of three stanzas. The dual compound Dyava-Prthivi, moreover, occurs much oftener than the name of Dyaus alone. Heaven and Earth are also mentioned as rodasi the ttvo ivorlds more than 100 times. They are parents, being often called pitara, matara, jdnitri, besides being separately addressed as 'father' and 'mother'. They have made and sustain al] creatures ; they are also the parents of the gods. At the same time they are in different passages spoken of as themselves created by individual gods. One of them is a prolific bull, the other a variegated cow, being both rich in seed. They never grow old. They are great and wide-extended ; they are broad and vast abodes. They grant food and wealth, or bestow great fame and dominion. Sometimes moral qualities

i. 160, l]

DYAVA-PRTHIVI

are attributed to them. They are wise and promote righteousness. As father and mother they guard beings, and protect from disgrace and mis- fortune. They are sufficiently personified to be called leaders of the sacrifice and to be conceived as seating themselves around the offering ; but they never attained to a living personification or importance in worship. These two deities are quite co-ordinate, while in most of the other pairs one of the two greatly predominates.

i. 160. Metre: Jagati.

"^ TfH I f| I ^T^T^f^^ Tf^ I f^^-

sil?jm I

^nr: 1 1^% I 1^: I ^ft TfTT I "^^m I ^: I ^f^: II

1 t6 hi Dyava-Prthivi visvasam-

bhuva, rtavari, rajaso dharayatkavi : sujanmani dhisane antar iyate dev6 devi dharmana Suriah

siicih.

These two, indeed, Heaven and Earth, are beneficial to all, observing order, supporting the sage of the air : heftveen the two divine howls that produce fair creations the divine hright Surya moves according to fixed laiv.

The first two Padas form an independent sentence ; otherwise hi (p. 252) would accent iyate in c. Dyava-Prthivi : on the accent, and treatment in the Pada text, see note on i. 35, 1 b. visva-sam- bhuva : dec, p. 89; accent, note on i. 1, 4b; final a and a are never contracted with r (19 a and note 5). rta-vari : note that, when the final vowel of a cd. is Pragrhya, this is in the Pada text first indicated by iti, and the cd. is then repeated and analysed ; in the present case the suffix vari (f. of van, pp. 67 and 69, f. n. 2) is treated like the final member of a cd., and the final vowel of rta is treated as metrically lengthened, dharayat-kavi : a governing

38 DYAVA-PRTHIVi [i. 160, l

cd. (189 A 2 a) ; the gen. rajasas is dependent on -kavi, probably = Agni, who (in x. 2, 7) is said to have been begotten by Dyava-prthivi. dhisane : the exact meaning of this word, here a designation of dyava-prthivi, is uncertain, antar iyate goes hettveen with ace. ; the same thing is said of Savitr in i. 35, 9 b. dharman n. ordinance (dharman m. ordainer) is the only stem in the KV. (dharma is a later one).

ftm I ^fi: I ^»i I ^f^T I ^^: I ^^T- ^^ci;ii

2 uruvyaeasa mahini asascata, As Father and Mother^ far-ex-

pita mata ca, bhiivanani raks- tending^ great, inexhaustible, the

at ah. two protect (all) being s. LiJce two

sudhrstame vapusie na rddasi, most proud fair women are the tivo

pita yat sim abhi riipair avasa- ivorlds, since the Father clothed

yat. them with beauty.

uru-vyacasa : on the accent of this Bv. having wide extension, see p. 455 c a. The du. a-sascat-a is a Bv. (as the accent shows, p. 455 c a) having no second, while a-sascant (also an epithet of Dyava-prthivi) is a Karmadharaya (p. 455, f. n. 2), not a second = unequalled, su-dhrstame : on the Pada analysis cp. note on i. 1, 1 c. vapusyd : cp. note on viryani, i. 154, 1 a. pita : the god here meant as the father of Dyava-prthivi may be Visvakarman, who in KV. X. 81, 1. 2 is called 'our father' and is described as creating the earth and heaven, sim : see p. 249. abhi avasayat : ipf. cs. of 2. vas tvear.

^ ^ ^f^* f^* f^^« i^f^^^f w. I ^f^: I H^: I ftTt: i ^f^^i^li

i. 160, 4] DYAVA-PRTHIVi - 39

fw^mi ^ 17^ ^^ f ^ff II f^^f 1 1 g^^ I ^^: I ^^ I ^^ ii

3 sa vahnih putrah pitaroh pavi- 2'hat son of the two parents, the

travan driver, the purifier, wisely purifies

punati dhiro bhuvanani ma- beings hy his mysterious power.

yaya. He has alivays milked from the

dhenum ca prsnim vrsabham speckled cow and from the hull

sur^tasam abounding in seed his shining

visvaha sukram pay6 asya duk- moisture,

sata.

putras : by the son of the parents (Heaven and Earth) Agni is meant ; for he is expressly said to have been begotten by Heaven and Earth (RV., x. 2, 7), cp. note on lb; he is especially called vahni as the one who conveys (vahati) the gods to the sacrifice ; he is very frequently called pavaka purifier (a term seldom applied to any other deity) ; he purifies beings in his character of priest. Sayana thinks the Sun is meant, and explains purifies by illumines, dhenum : the term cotv is often used in the RV. in the sense of earth, ca is here used with the first ace. instead of the second (cp. p. 228, 1). vrsabham : Dyaus is called a bull in other passages also, and is said to have been made by Agni to roar for man (i. 31, 4). su-r6tasam : alludes to the shedding of rain, visvaha is a cd. adv. resulting from the juxtaposition of visva aha as an ace. of time (cp. p. 300, 5) = for all days equivalent to aha visva which also occurs, duksata : unaugmented sa ao. (141 a) without initial aspiration (which is, however, restored in the Pada text), from duh milk (with two ace, 198, 2). The general meaning of c d is that Agni as the priest of sacrifice causes heaven to fertilize the earth, and the latter to be productive.

8 "^ l^-RT^^^t^ w^ ^^^ I I^T^tR; I ^^t^c I ^^: ^ <i^: i

^ ^^T^ ft^^ ft^^iJ^T I ^: I ^^T^ I "ft^^^Tf^ I f^^

40 DYAVA-PRTHIVI [i. 160, 4

^wtf'T: I ^^f»T: I ^ni i ^^% ii

4 ayam devanam apasam apas-

tamo yo jajana rodasi visvasam-

bhuva. vi yo mamd rajasi sukratuyaya ajarebhih skambhanebhih, sam

anrce.

He of the active gods is the most active who has created the tivo worlds that are beneficial to all. He who with insight has measured out the tivo spaces (and upheld them) ivifJi unaging supports, has been universally praised.

In this stanza (cp. 2) the father of Heaven and Earth is celebrated. apasam : partitive gen. (p. 321, ha), vi . . . mam§ : this expression is also used of Visnu (see i. 154, 1. 3) and other gods, rajasi : the heavenly and the terrestrial spaces. The initial vowel of d must be restored, sam anrce : red. pf. of arc sing (139, 6), the A. being used in the ps. sense ; Sayana explains it in an act. sense as puji- tavan has honoured, which he further interprets to mean stha- pitavan has established !

^^^ I ^T^j|f^^ x^ I ^^yj I

^^ I ^fir I f^: I ^ff^t*T I f^f 1 1 ^iTT^Ji: I ^^: I ^ Tf^ I ^^ I T^rm^ II

5 t6 no grnan^, mahini, mahi sra- vah, ksatram, Dyava-Prthivi, dha- satho brhat.

So being lauded, 0 great ones, bestoiv on us, 0 Heaven and Earth, great fame and ample dominion. Bring for us praiseivorthy strength

i. 160, 5] DYAVA PRTHIVi 41

y^nabhi krstis tatanama vis- hy tvhich we may always extend

vaha over the peoples.

panayiam 6j6 asm6 sam inva-

tam.

t^ : N. du. f., used anaphorically (p. 294, h). grnan6 : pr. pt. of

1. gr sing, A. used in ps. sense, mahini : there are six adjectives meaning great, formed from the root mah te great : by far the commonest is mah (81) ; mahant (85 a) is also common ; maha and mahin are not common, but are inflected in several cases ; mahi and mahas (83, 2 a a) are used in the N. A. sing, only, the former very often, the latter rarely, ksatram : without ea. dhasathas :

2. du. sb. s ao. (p. 162, 2) of dha hestow, to be construed with the dat. nas. abhi . . . tatanama : pf. sb. of tan • stretch (140, 1, p. 156). visva-ha is an adv. formed with the suffix ha = dha (p. 212 P) meaning literally in every manner = always (cp. visvaha in 3 d) ; on the accent cp. note on visvatas in i. 1, 4 b. panayya : see 162, 2. 6j6 : final o is pronounced short before a (p. 437, a 4), but the rhythm of the break here (— w — ) is abnormal (p. 440, f. n. 6). asm6 : properly loc. of vayam (p. 104), but also used as a dat., is Pragrhya ; it is dat. here (200 A 1). invatam : 2. du. ipv. of inv, a secondary root produced by a transfer from the fifth class (i-nu) to the first, inv-a (133, 3 I).

INDRA

Indra is invoked alone in about one-fourth of the hymns of the RV., far more than are addressed to any other deity ; for he is the favourite national god of the Vedic people. He is more anthropomorphic on the physical side, and more invested with mythological imagery, than any other member of the pantheon. He is primarily a god of the thunderstorm who vanquishes the demons of drought or darkness, and sets free the vsraters or wins the light. He is secondarily the god of battle who aids the victorious Aryan in over- coming his aboriginal foes.

His physical features, such as body and head, are often referred to ; after he has drunk Soma he agitates his jaws and his beard ; and his belly is many times mentioned in connexion with his great powers of drinking Soma. Being tawny (hari) in colour, he is also tawny-haired and tawny- bearded. His arms are especially often referred to because they wield the

42 INDEA [ii. 12

thunderbolt (vajra), which, mythologically representing the lightning stroke, is his exclusive weapon. This bolt was fashioned for him by Tvastr, being made of iron (ayasa), golden, tawny, sharp, many-pointed, sometimes spoken of as a stone or rock. Several epithets, compounds or derivatives of vajra, such as vajra-bahu bearing the holt m his arm and vajrin tvielder of the holt are almost without exception applied to him. Sometimes he is described as armed with bow and arrows ; he also carries a hook (afikusa).

Having a golden car, drawn by two tawny steeds (hari), he is a car- fighter (rathestha). Both his car and his steeds were fashioned by the Rbhus, the divine artificers.

As Indra is more addicted to Soma than any of the other gods, the comm(?n epithet ' Soma-drinker ' (Somapa) is characteristic of him. This beverage stimulates him to carry out his warlike deeds; thus for the slaughter of Vrtra he is said to have drunk three lakes of Soma. One whole hymn (x. 119) is a monologue in which Indra, intoxicated with Soma, boasts of his greatness and his might.

Indra is often spoken of as having been born, and two whole hymns deal with the subject of his birth. His father, the same as Agni's, appears to be Dyaus ; but the inference from other passages is that he is Tvastr, the artificer among the gods. Agni is called Indra's twin brother, and Pusan (vi. 54) is also his brother. His wife, who is often mentioned, is Indranl. Indra is associated with various other deities. The Maruts (i. 85) are his chief allies, who constantly help him in his conflicts. Hence the epithet Marutvant accompanied hy the Maruts is characteristic of him. Agni is the god most often conjoined with him as a dual divinity. Indra is also often coupled with Varuna (vii. 86) and Vayu, god of Wind, less often with Soma (viii. 48), Brhaspati (iv. 50), Pusan, and Visnu.

Indra is of vast size ; thus it is said that he would be equal to the earth even if it were ten times as large as it is. His greatness and power are constantly dwelt on : neither gods nor men have attained to the limit of his might ; and no one like him is known among the gods. Thus various epithets such as sakra and sacivant mighty, sacipati lord of might, sata- kratu having a hundred potvers, are characteristic of him.

The essential myth forming the basis of his nature is described with extreme frequency and much variation. Exhilarated by Soma and generally escorted by the Maruts, he attacks the chief demon of drought, usually called Vrtra, but often also the serpent (ahi). Heaven and Earth tremble when the mighty combat takes place. With his bolt he shatters Vrtra who encompasses the waters, hence receiving the exclusive epithet apsu-jit conquering in the tvaters- The result of the conflict, which is regarded as being constantly renewed, is that he pierces the mountain and sets free the waters pent up like imprisoned cows. The physical elements in the conflict are nearly always the bolt, the mountain, waters or rivers, while

ii. 12] INDRA 43

lightning, thunder, cloud, rain are seldom directly named. The waters are often terrestrial, but also often aerial and celestial. The clouds are the mountains (parvata, giri), on which the demons lie or dwell, or from which Indra casts them down, or which he cleaves to release the waters. Or the cloud is a rock (adri) which encompasses the cows (as the waters are f; sometimes called), and from which he releases them. Clouds, as containing the waters, figure as cows also; they further appear under the names of udder (iidhar), spring (litsa), cask (kavandha), pail (ko^a). The clouds, moreover, appear as the fortresses (puras) of the aerial demons, being described as moving, autumnal, made of iron or stone, and as 90, 99, or 100 in number. Indra shatters them and is characteristically called the 'fort-destroyer' (purbhid). But the chief and specific epithet of Indra is ' Vrtra-slayer ' (Vrtra-han), owing to the essential importance, in the myth, of the fight with the demon. In this fight the Maruts are his regular allies, but Agni, Soma, and Visnu also often assist him. Indra also engages in conflict with numerous minor demons ; sometimes he is described as destroying demons in general, the Raksases or the Asuras.

With the release of the waters is connected the winning of light, sun, and dawn. Thus Indra is invoked to slay Vrtra and to win the light. When he had slain Vrtra, releasing the waters for man, he placed the sun visibly in the heavens. The sun shone forth when Indra blew the serpent from the air. There is here often no reference to the Vrtra fight. Indra is then simply said to find the light ; he gained the sun or found it in the darkness, and made a path for it. He produces the dawn as well as the sun ; he opens the darkness with the dawn and the sun. The cows mentioned along with the sun and dawn, or with the sun alone, as found, released, or won by Indra, are here probably the morning beams, which are elsewhere compared with cattle coming out of their dark stalls. Thus when the dawns went to meet Indra, he became the lord of the cows ; when he overcame Vrtra he made visible the cows of the nights. There seems to be a confusion between the restoration of the sun after the darkness of the thunderstorm, and the recovery of the sun from the darkness of night at dawn. The latter feature is probably an extension of the former. Indra's connexion with the thunderstorm is in a few passages divested of mytho- logical imagery, as when he is said to have created the lightnings of heaven and to have directed the action of the waters downwards. With the Vrtra-fight, with the winning of the cows and of the sun, is also connected the gaining of Soma. Thus when Indra drove the serpent from the air, there shone forth fires, the sun, and Soma ; he won Soma at the same time as the cows.

Great cosmic actions are often attributed to Indra. He settled the quaking mountains and plains. He stretches out heaven and earth like a hide ; he holds asunder heaven and earth as two wheels are kept apart by

44 INDRA [ii. 12

the axle ; he made the non-existent into the existent in a moment. Some- times the separation and support of heaven and earth are described as a result of Indra's victory over a demon who held them together.

As the destroyer of demons in combat, Indra is constantly invoked by warriors. As the great god of battle he is more frequently called upon than any other deity to help the Aryans in their conflicts with earthly enemies. He protects the Aryan colour and subjects the black skin. He dispersed 50,000 of the black race. He subjected the Dasyus to the Aryan, and gave land to the Aryan.

More generally Indra is praised as the protector, helper, and friend of his worshippers. He is described as bestowing on them wealth, which is con- sidered the result of victories. His liberality is so characteristic that the frequent attribute maghavan bountiful is almost exclusively his.

Besides the central myth of the Vrtra-fight, several minor stories are connected with Indra. In various passages he is described as shattering the car of Usas, goddess of Dawn (iv. 51); this trait is probably based on the notion of Indra's bringing the sun when kept back by the delaying dawn. He is also said to have stopped the steeds of the Sun, apparently by causing the latter to lose a wheel of his car. Indra is further associated with the myth of the winning of Soma ; for it is to him that the eagle brings the draught of immortality from the highest heaven. Another myth is the capture by Indra, with the help of Sarama, of the cows confined in a cave by demons called Panis.

Various stories which, though mixed with mythological elements, pro- bably have an historical basis, are told of Indra's having fought in aid of individual proteges, such as king Sudas, against terrestrial foes.

The attributes of Indra are chiefly those of physical superiority and rule over the physical world. He is energetic and violent in action, an irresistible fighter, an inexhaustible lavisher of the highest goods on man- kind, but at the same time sensual and immoral in various ways, such as excess in eating and drinking, and cruelty in killing his own father Tvastr. He forms a marked contrast to Varuna, the other great universal monarch of the RV., who wields passive and peaceful sway, who uniformly applies the laws of nature, who upholds moral order, and whose character displays lofty ethical features.

The name of Indra is pre-Indian ; for it occurs in the Avesta as that ot a demon; the term verethraghna {^^vivsihaun) is also found there as the designation of the God of Victory, though unconnected with Indra. Thus it seems likely that there was already in the Indo-Iranian period a god resembling the Vrtra-slaying Indra of the RV. The etymology of the word is doubtful, but its radical portion ind may be connected with that in ind-u (h^op.

ii. 12, 2]

ii. 12. Metre: Tristubh.

INDRA

45

^: I ^Trf: I -^ I :q^^: i ^^^T^i: i W I ^^+?l I "ft^^ tT^ I ^^ g»=W I ^IT I ^: I ^^T^: 1 vk* I

L yo jata eva prathamo manasvan devo devan kratuna paryabhti-

sat ; yasya siismad rodasi abhyase-

tam nrmnasya raahna : sa, janasa,

Indrah.

The chief wise god who as soon as horn surpassed the gods in power ; before tvhose vehemence the two ivorlds trembled by reason of the greatness of his valour: he, 0 men, is Indra.

eva : see p. 224, 2. manas-van : note that the suffix van is not separated in the Pada text, as it is in pavitra-van (i. 160, 3) ; had the Sandhi of the word, however, been mano-van it would have been analysed as manahvjvan. dev6 devan : cp. i. 1, 5 c. parya- bhusat : the exact meaning of the vb. pari bhus is somewhat uncertain here, but as the greatness of Indra is especially emphasized in this hymn, surpass seems the most probable. Sayana explains it here as encompassed with protection ; in the AV. as ruled over ; in the TS. as surpassed, rodasi : the Pragrhya i of duals is not shortened in pronunciation before vowels (p. 437, f. n. 3). abhyasetam : ipf. of bhyas = bhi be afraid of, with abl. (p. 316, b). mahna : inst. of mahan greatness (cp. p. 458, 2). The refrain sa, janasa, Indrah ends every stanza (except the last) of this hymn ; similarly visvas- mad Indra littarah ends all the twenty-three stanzas of x. 86.

46 INDRA [ii. 12, 2

^ ^T^^^Tf^ W^T^ ^^: II ^: I ^T^ I W^Tfl^ I W I ^-^w I

vyathamanam.

T^/^o mac^e firm the quaJcing earth, who set at rest the agitated mountains ; tvho measures out the air more ividely, who supported heaven : he, 0 men, is Indra.

2 yah prthivim

adrmhad, yah parvatan prakupitam aram

nat, y6 antariksam vimam^ variyo. yo dyam astabhnat : sa, janasa,

fndrah.

yds : note that every Pada of this stanza, as well as of nearly every other stanza of this hymn, begins with a form of the relative prn. corresponding to the sa of the refrain. The cosmic deeds of Indra in all the three divisions of the universe, earth, air, and heaven, are here described, aramnat : ipf. of ram set at rest. vimam^ variyas (cpv. of uni, 103, 2 a) : here the cpv. is used predicatively, extended so as to be tvider ; cp. vi. 69, 5, where it is said of Indra and Visnu : ' ye made the air wider and stretched out the spaces for us to live.' dyam : ace. of <iy6 sky. astabhnat : ipf. of stabh prop ; in this and the preceding stanza the ipf. of narration is used throughout excepting vimam6 (a form of constant occurrence, cp. 154, 1. 3 ; 160, 4): cp. 213 d (p. 343).

-m I f WT I ^?l I ^WTct I ^H I

^ w[ ^^^^ w ^^-m I ^^^(^ ^ ^^T^ T'^: II

3 j6 hatvahim arinat sapta sin

dhun, ■yd ga udajad apadha Valasya, yd asmanor antar agnim jajana, samvrk samatsu : sa, janasa,

indrah.

Wo I 'FT: I ^fi:>J^^ri:i ^^^J>i(TI ^^^ I

w I ^^^^: I ^nr: i ^j^i ^^jit i ^'l>jf ^ I ^jR^s^ I m I ^^T^: I T%^: n

Who having slain the serpent released the seven streams, tvho drove out the coivs l)y the unclosing of Vala, who hetiveen two rocks has produced fire, victor in battles : he, 0 men, is Indra.

ii. ri, 4] INDEA 47

The first hemistich refers to the two well-known myths, the release of the waters by the conquest of Vrtra, and the capture of the cows imprisoned by Vala ; cp. ii. 14, 2 : yo ap6 vavrvamsam Vrtram jaghana who sletv Vrtra who had enclosed the waters, and ibid. 3 : yo ga udajad, apa hi Valam vah. who drove out the cows, for he unclosed Vala. arinat : ipf. of ri release, sapta sindhun : the seven rivers of the Panjab. gas : A. pi. of gd cotv. ud-ajat : ipf. of aj drive. There is some doubt as to the exact interpretation of apadha, a word that occurs here only. In form it can only be an I. s. of apa-dha (cp. 97, 2). The parallel use of apa-vr in ii. 14, 3 (quoted above) indicates that apa-dha means the unclosing by Indra of the cave of Vala in which the cows are imprisoned ; cp. also i. 11, 5: tvam Valasya gomato *pavar bilam thou hast unclosed the aperture of Vala rich in coivs. The form is explained by Durga, the commentator on the Nirukta, by apadhanena as meaning udgha- tanena Valasya % the unclosing of Vala. Sayana interprets it as an irregularity for the abl. = from the enclosure of Vala. Valasya : the objective gen. (p. 320, B 1 &) = by opening (the cave of) Vala. asmanor antar : between two clouds, according to Sayana ; between heaven and earth according to Durga ; the allusion is to the lightning form of Agni who in several passages is said to be ' in the rock ', to be * produced from the rock ' and is called * son of the rock ' (adreh suniih).

i ^m f^^T ^^^T ^fnf% %^ I X^l I f%^t I ^^TT I iJffTf^ I

4 y6nema visva cyavana krtani, -B«/ whom all things here have

y6 dasam varnam adharam gii- been made unstable, who has made hakah ; subject the Basa colour and has

48 INDKA [i. 12, 4

svaghniva yo jigivam laksam made it disappear; who, like a

adad winning gambler the stake, has

aryah pustani : sa, janasa, taken the possessions of the foe: he,

Indrah. 0 men, is Indra.

ima visva : all these things, that is, all things on earth, cyavana is used predicatively after krtani, just as adharam is in b after akar ; cp. iv. 30, 22 : yds ta visvani cicyus6 ivho hast shaken the whole ivorld. dasam varnam : the non- Aryan colour (== krsnam varnam), the aborigines ; note the difference of accent in the substantive dasa and the adj. dasa. akar ; root ao. of kr (148, 1 h), to be • construed with both adharam (make inferior = subject) and giiha {put in hiding = cause to disappear, drive away). When a final VisarjanT5"a in the Samhita text represents an etymological r, this is indicated in the Pada text by putting iti after the word and repeating the latter in its pause form : akar ity akah. jigivam : pf. pt. of ji win (139, 4) ; on the Sandhi see 40, 3. Since the normal metre requires w w — after the caesura (p. 441, top), this word was here perhaps metrically pronounced jigivam as it came to be regularly written in B. adat : irr. a ao. (147 a 1) from da give; though not analysed in the Pada text, it must owing to the sense be = a-adat has taken, aryas : gen of ari (99, 3) ; this word appears to be etymologically a Bv. = having no wealth (ri = rai), either for oneself (whence the sense needy, suppliant) or to bestow on others (whence the sense niggard, foe). [If a single meaning has to be given, devout is misleading, and suppliant should be substituted for it in the Vedic Grammar, p. 81, f. n. 1 ; 99, 3 ; and in the Index, p. 473.]

^# ^tT ^ ^^T^ X^: II x^"^ I iQ[^^ I

w. I ^^: I gi\: I ft^:vST^ i w i

f^f TfH I

^f^ I ^# I \jTn ^: I ^^T^: I ^^: li

ii. 12, 6]

INDRA

49

5 yam sma prchanti kiiha s^ti

ghoram, ut^m ahur naiso astiti enam ; so 'ryah pustir vija iva minati. srad asmai dhatta : sa, janasa,

indrah.

The terrible one of whom they ask ' where is he ', of ivhom they also say ' he is not' ; he diminishes the possessions of the niggard like the (player's) stake. Believe in him : he, 0 men, is Indra,

sma (p. 250) is metrically lengthened, the second syllable of the Pada favouring a long vowel (p. 441, top), prchanti : pr. of prach. s6ti for sa iti : the irr. contraction of sa with a following vowel is common (48 a), im anticipates enam : see p. 220. ahur : pf. of ah say, 139, 4 ; this vb. not being accented, b has the form of a principal clause, though the almost invariable use of relative clauses in this hymn would lead one to expect that the yam of the first clause would accentuate the second also, so aryas : the initial a, though written, should be dropped ; otherwise the irr. contraction vijeva is just possible, but ^ — for y^ w following a caesura after the fifth syllable is rare. 5 c is parallel to 4 c : a minati to adat ; aryah pustih to aryah pustani; vijah to laksam. Usas (iv. 51) is in i. 92, 10 described as wearing away the life of mortals, svaghniva krtniir vija aminana diminishing it as a skilful gambler the stakes, minati : pr. of mi damage, srad dhatta (2. pi. ipv. of dha) believe, with dat. (200 A. 1 e). The Padas a b mention doubts as to the existence of Indra ; c implies that he does exist ; and d calls for belief in him.

gn^T'T^ ^ ^^^ V^: II grf^J^TT^ I w. I ^'TT^: I T^: ii

6 yo radhrasya codita, yah krsa- Who is furtherer of the rich, of

sya, the poor, of the suppliant Brahmin

yo brahmano nadhamanasya singer; who, fair-lipped, is the

kir6h ; helper of him that has pressed Soma

1902

E

50 INDKA [ii. 12, 6

yuktagravno yd avita susiprah. and has set to work the stones : he, sutasomasya : sa, janasa, In- 0 men, is Indra. drah.

codita governs the three genitives (the rich, the poor, the priestly- poet) of a b, as the three relatives show ; while avita governs that of c. su-sipras : Bv. cd., p. 455, c a. The exact meaning of sipra is somewhat doubtful, but as it is regularly dual, has the attributive tawny f hari-sipra being parallel to hari-smasaru taivny-tearded, and is associated with Indra's drinking of Soma, it can hardly mean anything but lips or moustaches ; it could not well mean jaws which are hanu. yukta-gravnas : of him who has set in motion the stones with which the Soma shoots are pounded.

^: ^ ^ '^^^ ^^t^ ^: i f^'l^i ^» i ^^1 1 ^wr i

7 yasyasvasah pradisi, yasya In whose control are horses, hine,

gavo, clans, all chariots ; tvho creates the

yasya grama, yasya visve ra- sun, the dawn; ivho is the guide

thasah; of the waters: he, 0 men, is

yah sliriam, ya usasam jajana ; Indra.

y6 apam neta : sa, janasa, In- drah.

usasam : often also usasam ; du. N. A. usasa and usasa ; N. pi. usasas and usasas ; see 83, 2 a, f. n. 1.

^^+ f ^^ ^ oT^n^ \^\ II ^^T^Jl I f^fi: I T^'i I wf^^^^ I

^T^f I f*^ ^fir I ^: I w^: i ^: ii

ii. 12, 9]

INDRA '

51

8 yam krandasi samyati vihva- yete, pare avara ubhaya amitrah ; samanam cid ratham atasthi-

vamsa nana havete : drah.

sa, janasa, In-

Whom the two battle-arrays, coming together, call upon diver- gently, loth foes, the farther and the nearer; two having mounted the selfsame chariot invoice him separately : he, 0 men, is Indra,

sam-yati : pr. pt. du. n. of sam-i go together, vi-hvayete (from hva) and nana havete (from hu, the Samprasarana form of hva) are synonymous = call on variously ; cp. i. 102, 5. 6 : nana hi tva havamana jana im6 these men calling on thee (Indra) variously ; and atha jana vi hvayante sisasavah so men call on thee variously, desiring gains. par6 Vara : must be read pare avara, though the succession of five short syllables before the caesura is irregular (p. 440, 4). The second Pada explains krandasi : ubhayas (never used in the dual) = both groups of foes, that on the farther and that on the nearer side, from the point of view of the speaker ; according to Sayana, the superior and the inferior, samanam contrasted with nana : two who are on the same chariot, that is, the fighter and the driver, invoke him separately, havete : not being accented must be taken as the vb. of a principal clause ; cp. note on 5 b.

9 yasman nart6 vijayante janaso, Without whom men do not

yam yiidhyamana avase ha- conquer, whom they tvhen fighting

vante ; call on for help ; who has heen a

yo visvasya pratimanam ba- match for every one, who moves the

bhuva, immovable : he, 0 men, is Indra. j6 acyutaeyut : sa, janasa, Indrah.

E 2

52

INDKA

[ii. n, 9

na rt6 : must be pronounced nart6 (19 a), vi-jayante : pr. of ji conquer. havante : cp. vihvayete in 8 a. avase : final dat. (p. 314, B 2). pratlmanam : cp. iv. 18, 4 : nahi nii asya prati- manam asti antar jat^su uta j6 janitvah/or there is no match for him among those who have been horn nor those who will he horn. acyuta-cyiit : cp. 4 a ; also iii. 30, 4 : tvam cyavayann acyutani . . . carasi thou continuest shaking unshaken things.

^0 ^: w^cfr ^tf^ ^^t^T'l

10 yah sasvato mahi ^no dadhanan amanyamanan charua jaghana ; yah sardhate nanudadati srdh-

yam, yo dasyor hanta : sa, janaso,

fndrah.

Who slays with his arroiv the unexpecting many that commit great sin; ivho forgives not the arrogant man his arrogance, ivho slays the Dasyu : lie, 0 men, is Indra.

dadhanan: pr. pt. A. of dha. The Sandhi of an (39) is not applied between Padas (cp. i. 35, 10 c). amanyamanan : not thinking scil. that he would slay them ; on the Sandhi of n + s, see 40, 1. sarva : tvith his arroiv (inst. , p. 80); with his characteristic weapon, the vajra, he slays his foes in battle, jaghana : lias slain (and still slays) may be translated by the present (213 A a), anu- dadati : 3. s. pr. of anu + da forgive, with dat. (cp. 200 A/), dasyos : of the demon, a term applied to various individual demons, such as Sambara (11a).

c|C| ^: ij?4t ^^^3 f^^^

^: I ir^-^ I ^^'^^ I f^^'fi?^ i ^^Tft^T^ I ^T.f^ I ^g^^N^ct^i ^^T^iT+^^i: I ^: I ^fw'l I ?^T^ I ^ipi I ^^t'Tfl I ^' I ^'fW' I T^' II

I

ii, 12, 12]

INDRA

1 yah Sambaram parvatesu ksi-

yantam eatvarimsyam saradi anva-

vindat ; ojayamanam yo ahim jaghana, Danum sayanam : sa, janasa,

Indrah.

Who in the fortieth autumn found out SafYibara cUvelUng in the mountains ; who has slain the serpent as he shoived his strength, the son of JDdnu, as he lay : he, 0 men, is Indra.

Sambara, next to Vrtra, Vala, and Susna, is the most frequently mentioned demon foe of Indra, who strikes him down from his mountain. He is often spoken of as possessing many forts, ksi- yantam : see note on i. 154, 2 d. catvarimsyani : that is, Indra found him after a very long search, as he was hiding himself, anvavindat : ipf. of 2. vid find. The second hemistich refers to Indra's slaughter of Vrtra. ojayamanam : cp. iii. 32, 11 ; ahann ahim parisayanam arna ojayamanam thou slewest the serpent shoiving his strength as he lag around the flood. Danum : this is strictly the name of Vrtra's mother, here used as a metronymic = Danava ; cp. i. 32, 9 : Danuh saye sahavatsa na dheniih Bdnu lag like a cow with her calf(i. e. Vrtra). sayanam : pr. pt. A. of si lie (134, 1 c).

^: I ^Hitft^: I I^'t: i gf^^^r-H, ^^.j^^^fi: I ?ErH% I f F I ft't^ I ^: I "^ffW'l I ^WT^ I ^^vjm^: I ^TJ^l^vJTt^nTii:! ^: i^^T^:i T^:ii

12 yah saptarasmir vrsabhas tiivi-

sman avasrjat sartave saptd sindhun ; yo Rauhinam asphurad vajra-

bahur dyam ar6hantam : sa, janasa,

indrah.

The mighty seven-reined hull who let loose the seven streams to floiv ; who armed ivith the holt spurned Uauhina as he scaled heaven : he, 0 men, is Indra.

The term vrsabha is very often applied to gods, but especially to Indra, as expressing mighty strength and fertility, sapta-rasmis :

54 INDRA [ii. 12, 12

having seven reins probably means ' hard to restrain \ * irresistible ' ; Sayana interprets the cd. to mean 'having seven kinds of clouds (parjanyas) that shed rain on the earth '. tuvis-man : the suffix mant is separated in the Pada text only after vowels, as g6 vj man ; on the Sandhi see 10 a. ava-asrjat : ipf. of srj emit, sartave : dat. inf. of sr floiv (p. 192, 4). sapta sindhun : cp. 3 a and i. 35, 8 b. Rau- hinam : a demon mentioned in only one other passage of the RV. dyam a-rohantam : ascending to heaven in order to attack Indra.

«^? ^T^t f^^# ^ft ^^ W[^\ I f^ri; I ^# I ^ft T^ I

^ ^m^w* ^ ^^^ v^i II ^: I ^^^t^t: i f^^f^: i ^#^^tf: i

^: I ^#if^: I ^: l ^cfjf : i T^: li

13 DyavacidasmaiPrthivinamete; Even Heaven and Earth how

iSusmac cid asya parvata bha- doivn hefore him; before his ve-

yante ; hemence even the mountains are

yah somapa nicit6 vajrabahur, afraid. Who is linoivn as the Soma-

jd vajrahastah ; sa, janasa, drinker, holding the holt in his arm,

Indrah. who holds the holt in his hand : he,

0 men, is Indra.

Dyava . . . Prthivi : the two members of Devata-dvandvas are here, as often, separated by other words (186 A 1). asmai : dat. with nam how (cp. 200 A 1 A;, p. 311). bhayante : see note on i. 85, 8 c. siismad : cp. 1 c. soma-pas (97, 2) : predicative nom., (196 h). ni-citas : on the accent see p. 462, f. n. 4.

«^8 ^: g^^^^^ ^: ^^^ ^: I W^^ i ^^f^ I ^^ I ^t^^'^TIi

^: i[^T^ ^^: itii^rj^^fft i ^: i ^^^t^ i ^: i ^^tr^ i ^^ i

^^ w^ ^M W ^*ft ^^ I w^ I ^^^1 1 ^^ I ^- I

•^^i tto: ^ ^'TT^ T^: ii ^^ i T^'l I TT^: I €: i w^: i ly^- "

ii. 12, 15]

INDEA

55

I: yah sunvantam avati, yah pac- Who with his aid helps him that

antam, yah samsantam, yah sasama-

nam uti ; yasya brahma vardhanam,

yasya s6ino, yasyedam radhah : sa, janasa,

indrah.

presses Soma, him that hakes, him that offers praise, him that has pre- pared the sacrifice ; whom prayer, whom Soma, whom this gift strengthens : he, 0 men, is Indra.

sunvantam : all the participles in a and b refer to some act of worship : pressing Soma ; baking sacrificial cakes, &c. ; praising the gods ; having prepared the sacrifice, sasamanam : explained by Sayana as stotram kurvanam offering a Stotra ; by the Naighantuka, iii. 14, as arcantam singing ; by the Nirukta, vi. 8, as samsamanam praising, uti : contracted inst. of uti (p. 80) to be construed with avati ; cp. i. 185, 4 : avasa avanti helping with aid. vardhanam : to be taken predicatively with each of the three subjects brahma, s6mas, radhas, of whom prayer, &c. is the strengthening, that is, whom prayer, &c. strengthens ; yasya being an objective gen. (p. 320, B 1 h). idam radhas this gift = this sacrificial offering.

^: 1 1^^ I ^^% I ^w: I ^ I f^ci: I m^^i ^ff^ I ^: I f^^ I '^ftRw: i ^^^ I ^ I T^ I i^i I fkm^: I g>jftT+^: I T^^^^ \ ^ i ^^r ii

15 yah sunvat6 pacate dudhra a

cid vajam dardarsi, sa kilasi sat-

yah. vayam ta, Indra, visvaha pri-

yasah, suviraso vidatham a vadema.

As he who, most fierce, enforces booty for him that presses and him that hakes, thou indeed art true. We ever dear to thee, 0 Indra, with strong sons, would utter divine worship.

This concluding stanza is the only one that does not end with the refrain sa, janasa, Indrah. Instead, the poet, changing from the 3.

56 INDEA [ii. 12, 15

to the 2. prs., substitutes at the end of b the words sa kila^asi satyah as such thou art indeed true = to be depended on (cp. note on satyam in i. 1, 6 c); while c and d are a prayer ending with an adaptation of the favourite refrain of the Gautamas, the poets of the second Mandala : brhad vadema vidathe suvirah tve would, accom- panied hy strong sons, speaJc aloud at divine ivorship. a cid : perhaps better taken as emphasizing dudhras (cp. p. 216) than with dardarsi (int. of df). te : gen. with priyasas (p. 322, C). vida- tham : the etymology and precise sense of this word have been much discussed. There can now be hardly any doubt that it is derived from the root vidh worship, and that it means divine worship, scarcely distinguishable from yajna, of which it is given as a synonym in Naighantuka, iii. 17 ; cp. note on i. 85, 1.

EUDEl

This god occupies a subordinate position in the RV., being celebrated in only three entire hymns, in part of another, and in one conjointly with Soma. His hand, his arms, and his limbs are mentioned. He has beautiful lips and wears braided hair. His colour is brown ; his form is dazzling, for he shines like the radiant sun, like gold. He is arrayed with golden ornaments, and wears a glorious necklace (niska). He drives in a car. His weapons are often referred to : he holds the thunderbolt in his arm, and discharges his lightning shaft from the sky ; but he is usually said to be armed with a bow and arrows, which are strong and swift.

Rudra is very often associated with the Maruts (i. 85). He is their father, and is said to have generated them from the shining udder of the cow Prsni.

He is fierce and destructive like a terrible beast, and is called a bull, as well as the ruddy (arusa) boar of heaven. He is exalted, strongest of the strong, swift, unassailable, unsurpassed in might. He is young and unaging, a lord (i^ana) and father of the world. By his rule and univeral dominion he is aware of the doings of men and gods. He is bountiful (raidhvanis), easily invoked and auspicious (siva). But he is usually regarded as malevo- lent ; for the hymns addressed to him chiefly express fear of his terrible shafts and deprecation of his wrath. He is implored not to slay or injure, in his anger, his worshippers and their belongings, but to avert his great malignity and his cow-slaying, man-slaying bolt from them, and to lay others low. He is, however, not purely maleficent like a demon. He not only preserves from calamity, but bestows blessings. His healing powers are especially often mentioned ; he has a thousand remedies, and is the

ii. 33, 1] RUDRA 57

greatest physician of physicians. In this connexion he has two exclusive epithets, jalasa, cooling, and jalasa-bhesaja, 2?05sessw^ cooling remedies.

The physical basis represented by Rudra is not clearly apparent. But it seems probable that the phenomenon underlying his nature was the storm, not pure and simple, but in its baleful aspect seen in the destructive agency of lightning. His healing and beneficent powers would then have been founded partly on the fertilizing and purifying action of the thunder- storm, and partly on the negative action of sparing those whom he might slay. Thus the deprecations of his wrath led to the application of the euphemistic epithet siva, which became the regular name of Rudra's historical successor in post-Vedic mythology.

The etymological sense of the name is somewhat uncertain, but would be * Howler ' according to the usual derivation from rud cry.

ii. 33. Metre: Tristubh.

^ ^ ^ft ^fH ^T{ ^ I ^: I ^^: I ^^f?T I ^j[ I IT ^^?Tff ^^ iR^Tfir: II 3T I ^T^^ff I ^f I TT^^Tfit: II

1 a te, pitar Marutam, sumnam Let thy good will, 0 Father of

etu : the Maruts, come (to us) : sever us

ma nah suryasya samdrso yuyo- not from the sight of the sun. May

thah. the hero he merciful to us in regard

abhi no vir6 arvati ksameta ; to our steeds ; may we he prolific

pra jayemahi, Rud^ra, praja- with offspring. bhih.

pitar Marutam : the whole of a compound voc. expression loses its accent unless it begins a sentence of Pad a ; in the latter case only the first syllable would be accented (p. 465, 18 a), yuyothas : 2. s. inj. A. of 2. yu separate, with irregular strong radical vowel (p. 144, a), samdrsas : abl. 201 A 1. viras = Rudra, with change from 2. to 3. prs., as is often the case (cp. i. 85, 5 c). arvati abhi ksameta = may he not injure us in our steeds, may he spare them. Rudra must be read as a trisyllable [lb. Id).

58

EUDEA [ii. 33, 2

2 tvadattebhi, Rud^ra, samtame- B^/ the most salutary medicines

bhih given hy thee, 0 Budra, I ivould

satam hima asiya bhesaj^bhih. attain a hundred winters. Drive

vi asmad dv^so vitaram, vi far away from us hatred, away

amho, distress, away diseases in all di-

vi amivas catayasva visucih. rections.

tva-dattebhi : the first member of this cd. retains the inst. case- form (p. 273) ; Sandhi, 47. satam : on the concord see p. 291, h ; life extending to a hundred winters or autumns (saradas) is often prayed for. asiya : root ao. op. A. of ams (p. 171, 4). vi : the prp. of a cd. vb. is often repeated with each object, the vb. itself being used only once, vitaram : adv. of the cpv. of vi farther (cp. ut-tara) employed only with verbs compounded with vi. catayasva : ipv. A. cs. of cat, with metrical lengthening of the final vowel, visucis : A. pi. f. of visvanc turned in various directions, is used predicatively like an adv.

3 sr^stho jatasya, Rud^ra, sri- yasi, tavastamas tavasam, vajrabaho. pdrsi nah param amhasah su-

asti ; viiva abhtti rapaso yuyodhi.

%^: I ^TfT^ I ^f I t^T I ^f^ I

^^:vjft^: I T\^m^^ i ^^^jft i^

^^smf[ I vf^ I ^: I TTTT'l I ^f ^' I ^^f^ I f^^i: I ^^vST^: I T^: i W^_f^ ii

Thou art the best oftvhat is born, 0 Budra, in glory, the mightiest of the mighty, 0 ivielder of the bolt. Transport us to the farther shore of distress in safety. Ward off all attacks of mischief

ii. 33, 4] EUDRA 59

jatasya : the pp. used as a n. collective noun = that which lias been borrif creation, vajra-baho : it is only here that this specific epithet of Indra is applied to any other deity ; the voc. o of u stems is regularly treated as Pragrhya by the Pada text, but not in the Samhita text (where for instance vayav a and vaya ukth^bhih are written), parsi : from pr take across, is one of a number of isolated 2. s. pr. indicatives in form, but ipv. in sense (p. 349, /S). nas : initial n cerebralized even in external Sandhi (65 A c). param: ace. of the goal (197 A 1). svasti : this word is not analysed in the Pada text (like sumati, &c.) because asti does not occur as an independent substantive ; here it is a shortened form of the con- tracted inst. svasti (p. 80, n. 2) ; it is several times used in the sense of a final dat. = svastaye. abhitis : = abhi itis, hence the Svarita (p. 464, 17, 1 a) ; Sandhi, 47. yuyodhi : 2. s. ipv. of yu separate^ with irr. strong radical vowel (p. 144, a).

8 TT ^T ^^ 'Sf ^■^'^I 'f^Tf^^ ^T I ^T I ^f I ^f ^T^ I Ti}:^fH: I

^ ^TT ^iJ^ ^^%^^ ^fi: I ^: I ^TT'l I ^^^ I «^^%ty: I

fH^^^ ^T fvi^mi 'jwtf^ II f^^^i fi^^i W[ I fi^W^i ^^f^ II

4 ma tva, Rudra, cukrudhama May we not anger thee, 0 Rudra,

namobhir, with our obeisances, nor with ill

ma diistuti, vrsabha, ma sa- praise, 0 bull, nor with joint

huti. invocation. Baise up our heroes

lin no viram arpaya bhesaj6- with remedies : I hear of thee as

bhir : the best physician of physicians. bhisaktamam tva bhisajam sr-

nomi.

cukrudhama: this form, red. (cs.) ao. (149, p. 174) might in itself be either sb. or inj., because the 1. pi. P. of these moods is identical in a stems ; but the use here of the prohibitive pel. ma, which is employed with inj. forms only (180), decides the question, namobhis : that is, with ill or inadequate worship ; cp. dustuti in b ; the latter form is a contracted inst. (p. 80) ; on

60 EUDRA [ii. 33, 4

the internal Sandhi of this word see 43, 3 a. sahuti : contracted inst. ; invocation with other deities whom Eudra might consider inferior. ud arpaya : cs. of ud r (p. 197, irr. 1) — raise up, strengthen, bhisajam : partitive gen. (see 202 B 2 &, p. 321) ; cp. 3 b. srnomi : pr. of sru hear; with double ace, 198, 1.

^^: ^fiiiffif ftT^^TW II ^^: I g^ftiTt: i.'OT^fi: i ^^tW ii

5 havimabhir havate yo havir- Budra ivho is called on ivith

bhir, invocations and with oUations, I

ava stomebhi Eud*ram disiya : would appease with songs of praise :

rdudarah. suhavo ma no asyai may he, the compassionate, easy

babhruh. susipro riradhan ma- to invoke, ruddy hroivn, fair-

nayai. lipped, not subject us to that

jealousy of his.

haviman : from hu call, but havis from hu sacrifice, ava disiya : s ao. op. A. of da give (144, 3). rdtidaras is not analysed in the Pada text, perhaps owing to a doubt whether it is = rdu-udara or rdu-dara (the former is the view of Yaska who explains it as mrdu-udara) ; for rdu-pa and rdu-vrdh are separated and dara is separated in puyam-dara. Both this word (according to the former analysis) and su-hava are Bv. (p. 455, c a), babhriis : this colour is attributed to Eudra in viii. 9, 15 also ; otherwise it is applied more often to Soma (viii. 48) as well as once to Agni. su-sipras : see note on ii. 12, 6 c. riradhat : inj. red. ao. of randh. asyai manayai : that is, Eudra's well-known wrath is deprecated ; cp. 4ab. There is some doubt as to the exact interpretation of this stanza. The chief objection to the above explanation is the necessity to take havate in a ps. sense (= huyate according to Sayana). The following sense has also been suggested: 'he who invokes Eudra (thinks), *' I would buy off Eudra with songs of praise " : let not Eudra subject us to that suspicion (on his part).'

ii. 33, 7] KUDKA 61

6 lin ma mamanda vrsabho Ma- The bull accompanied by the

riitvan Maruts has gladdened me, the sup-

tvaksiyasa vayasa nadhama- pliant, with his most vigorous force,

nam. I tvould unscathed attain shade in

ghrniva chayam arapa asiya : heat as it tvere : I would desire to

a vivaseyam Rud^rasya sum- win the good will of Budra.

nam.

lid . . . mamanda : pf. of mand (nasalized form of mad) gladden ; intransitive, he glad, in A. only, rsabhas : Rudra. Mariitvan ; though this epithet is characteristic of Indra, it is also twice applied to Rudra (as father of the Maruts, see 1 a) as well as very rarely to a few other gods who are associated with Indra ; on the Sandhi see 40, 2. ghrniva has been much discussed. The only natural explanation (following the Pad a text) is ghrni iva, taking ghrni as a contracted inst. f. (p. 80) expressing either cause = by reason oj heat (199 A 3) or time = in heat (199 A 5) ; Sayana's explanation is ghrni iva like one heated l>y the rays of the su/n ; but a word ghrnin N. ghrni does not occur, and the accent is wrong. For the simile cp. vi. 16, 38 : upa chayam iva ghrner aganma sarma te vayam ive have entered thy shelter like shade (protecting) from heat (p. 317, 2). asiya : see 2b; on the Sandhi of the final vowel of the Pada, cp. i. 160, 4 c. a vivaseyam : op. ds. of van win.

^ l> W H ^?; gae^Tf ^ #i i ^: i ^ i ^f i ^^^: i

f^ ^ "^ %^wt ^^f^: I f^: I ^: i ^f^ i ^^w: i m^w, i

^w#r t4^ ^^^t- TL^I^"^ I '^^^' I %^^ ^

'ft ^ 'TT f ^H ^^^^t: II ^ I g I m I f w I 'I'^'ft^- II

62

KUDRA

[ii. 33, 7

7 kiia sya te, Rud^ra, mrlayakur has to j6 asti bhesaj6 jalasah ? apabharta rapaso daiviasya abhi nii ma, vrsabha, caksam- ithah.

Where, 0 Eudra, is that merciful hand of thine tvhich is healing and cooling ? As remover of injury coming from the gods, do thou, 0 Bull, now be compassionate towards me.

r

kval sya : see p. 450, &. bhesajas is an adj. here and in one other passage; otherwise it is a n. noun meaning medicine, apa- bharta : on the accent see p. 453, 9 d. daivyasya : derived from the gods, that is, such as is inflicted by Rudra himself ; on the Sandhi of the final vowel, cp. 6 c. abhi : final vowel metrically lengthened in the second syllable of the Pada, but not in 1 c. eaksamithas : 2. s. pf. op. of ksam (p. 156, 3).

8 pra babhrave vrsabhaya svitic6 maho mahim sustutim irayami. namasya kalmalikinam namo-

bhir. grnimasi tvesam E-udrasya

nama.

IT I -^ym I f W-RT I f^^% I

^f : I ^fV^ I IvJ^fTT^ I tT^Tf^T I

^w^ I w^tf^^JR: I 'Thrift: I ^Tift^ I ^^Ji: I "i^^;^ I ^T*t II

For the ruddy-brown and tvhitish hull I utter forth a mighty eulogy of the mighty one. I ivill adore the radiant one tvith obeisances. We invoke the terrible name of Eudra.

pra . . . irayami : an example of the prp. at the beginning, and the vb. to which it belongs at the end of a hemistich. svitic6 : D. s. of svityanc (cp. 93). mahas : gen. s. m. of mah, beside the ace. s. f. of the same adj. (Sayana : mahato mahatim), of the great one (Rudra) ; cp. i. 1, 5 c. namasya : according to the Pada this form has its final syllable metrically lengthened for namasya, which is the 2. s. ipv. ; otherwise it is the 1. s. sb. (p. 128), which is the more likely because the third syllable does not favour metrical lengthening, and because the 1. prs. is used both in the preceding

ii. 33, lO]

RUDEA

63

9 stliir6bhir angaih pururupa

ugr6 babhriih sukr^bhih pipise hira-

nyaih. isanad asya bhuvanasya bhurer na va u yosad Rud^rad asuryam.

and the following Pada. The metre of c is abnormal because the caesura follows the third syllable, and there is a secondary caesura after the eighth, grnimasi : 1. pi. pr. of gr sing (p. 138).

f^Tf^r: I ^f : i H^i^4: i ^: i t^^Tfi: I w I g^^^ I ^: I ^^^ II

With his firm limbs, having many forms, the mighty one, ruddy- brown, has adorned himself with bright gold ornaments. From the ruler of this great world, from JRudra, let not his divine dominion depart.

sthir^bhir angaih : probably to be construed with pipise, by means of his firm limbs he has adorned himself tvith golden ornaments, that is, his limbs are adorned with golden ornaments ; Sayana supplies yuktas furnished with firm limbs, pipise : pf. A. of pis. isanad : pr. pt. (agreeing with Rudrad) of is rule over with gen. (202 A a) ; the pf. pt. is isana. bhures : agreeing with bhuvanasya ; cp. vii. 95, 2 : c6tanti bhuvanasya bhureh talcing note of the tvide world (where bhiires could not agree with any other word) ; Sayana takes it with Rudrad. yosat : s ao. of yu separate (p. 162, 2 ; 201 A 1). asuryam : an examination of the occurrences of this word indicates that as an adj. it should be pronounced asuria, but as a substantive asurya.

^I'l: I f^»Tf§ I ^T^^Tf^ I >^^ I

^IH I f^y^K I ^^cT^ I ft^vf ^^ I

^H I T^l I 5?% I f^^l I ^11

^ I % I W^^: I ^f I ^cl I ^f% II

64

KUDRA

[ii. 33, 10

10 arlian bibharsi sayakani dhanva arhan niskam yajatam visvaru-

pam ; arhann idamdayase visvam abh-

vam : na va 6jiyo, Iludara, tvad asti.

Worthy thou hearest arrows and how ; worthy thy adorable all- coloured necMace; worthy thou ivieldest all this force : there is nothing mightier than thou, 0 Budra,

bibharsi : 2. s. pr. of bhr hear ; this pr. stem is much less common than that according to the first class, bhara. arhann : 52. idam : this, viz. that thou possessest. dayase : 2. s. A. pr. of 2. da divide. Sayana interprets idam dayase abhvam as thou protectest this very extensive (abhvam) world, tvad: abl. after cpv. (p. 317, 3).

11 stuhi srutam gartasadam yiiva-

nam, mrgam na bhimam upahatniim,

ngram. mrla jaritr^ Rud^ra stavano : anyam te asman ni vapantu

s6nah.

Praise him, the famous, that sits on the car-seat, the young, the mighty, that slays like a dread least 0 Budra, heing praised he gracious to the singer: let thy missiles lay low another than us.

yuvanam : other gods also, such as Agni, Indra, the Maruts, are spoken of as young, mrgam na bhimam : cp. note on i. 154, 2 b ; either a bull (vrsabho na bhimah vi. 22, 1) or a lion (simh6 na bhimah, iv. 16, 14) may be meant, mrla : ipv. of mrd ; with dat., p. 311,/. stavanas : here, as nearly always, in a ps. sense, asmad : abl. with anya, p. 317, 3. s6nas : that this word here means missiles is rendered probable by the parallel passage VS. 16, 52 : yas te sahasram hetayo 'nyam asman ni vapantu tah may those thousand missiles of thine lay low another than us.

ii. 33, 13]

^rT5^ "it^^T ^T^^ II

EUDKA 65

f ^T: I f^^ I f^tl I ^^^T^T^ I 3Tf?T I ^T^ \ W^ I ^^vJ^^^ I

3^: I ^?!Ttl I ^flvj4f?r^ I ^tstY^ i ^cT: I ^^1 ^W I TTft I ^if Xf^ II

2 kumaras eit pitaram vandama- nam prati nanama Rud'^ropayantam. bhurer dataram satpatimgrnise : stutas tuam bhesaja rasi asme.

A son hows towards Ms father ivlio approving approaches him, 0 Budra. I sing to the true lord, the giver of much : praised thou givest remedies to us.

The interpretation of a b is doubtful. It seems to mean : Rudra, as a father, approaches with approval the singer, as a son ; Rudra, being addressed in the voc, is told this in an indirect manner. I cannot follow Sayana (pratinato 'smi I have hoived doivn to) and several translators in treating nanama as 1. s. pf., which in the RV. could only be nanama (p. 149, n. 1). nanama : =pr. ; the lengthening of the first syllable is not metrical, see 139, 9. The meaning of c d appears to correspond to that of ab: Rudra, being praised, shows his favour by bestowing his remedies ; the singer therefore extols him as the giver of riches, grnise : an irr. form of the 1. s. A. of gr sing, asm6 : dat., p. 104 ; 200 A 1.

^ ^T ^ %T^^T TT^rT: ^^f%

^T I ^: I ^^_^T I ^^<t: I ^^f% I ^T I iR,ifT^T I i^ig: I ^T I ^^^vjg I ^Tf^ I ^^: I ^iwtfT i PjfiT I ^: 1

rIT I ^^ I ^ I ^: I ^ I ^_^^ I ^'T II

13 ya vo bhesaja, Marutah, siieini. Your remedies, 0 Maruts, that

ya samtama, vrsano, ya mayo- are pure, that are most wholesome,

bhii, 0 mighty ones, that are heneficent,

yani Manur avrnita, pita nas : ihatManu, our father, chose: these

ta sam ca y6s ca Eud'''rasya and the healing and blessing of

vasmi. Budra I desire.

1902

66

EUDRA

[ii. 33, 13

Marutas : the Maruts, as the sons of Rudra (cp. 1 a) are here incidentally invoked, and their remedies associated with Rudra's. mayobhii : the short form of the N. pi. n. (p. 82, n. 7, and p. 83, d). Manus : the ancestor of mankind, often spoken of as a father or ' our father ', and the institutor of sacrifice, avrnita : 3. s. ipf. A. (with metrically lengthened final vowel) of 2. vr choose, sam, yds : these words are frequently used in combination, either as adverbs or substantives.

^fr I 'I- 1 |f^' I ^?:^ I 1^- I

^ I ^W I f :i^: I ^f^ I TTfi.i ^^ I f^T I ^^^ci:i^: I ^g^ I

W\^: I rft^T^ I fM^T^ I g^ II

14 pari no heti Rud^asya vrjyah, Map the dart ofMudra pass us

pari tvesasya durniatir mahi hp, map the great ill ivill of the

gat. terrible one go hy us : slacken thy

ava sthira maghavadbhyas ta- firm (weapons) for (our) liberal

nusva ; patrons; 0 bounteous one, be merci-

midhvas, tokaya tanayaya mrla. ful to our children and descendants,

vrjyas : 3. s. root ao. pre. (p. 172 a) of vrj ticist. gat : root ao. inj. of ga go. maghavadbhyas : the I. D. Ab. pi. of maghavan are formed from the supplementary stem maghavant (91, 5). ava tanusva sthira : relax the taut, with reference to the bow, the special weapon of Rudra ; used with the dat. because equivalent to mrla be merciful to (p. 311/). midhvas : voc. of the old unredupli- cated pf. pt. midhvams, cp. p. 66 ; 157 b (p. 182). mrla : = mrla, p. 437, a 9.

\^ Jmi ^^ f^H %f^?!T^

^l^ I -^ tfri i fw i %f^^T^ i ^^f 1 1^ I ^ I pff^ I ^ I f fit I f^^vj^c^^ I ^: I 55 I Tf I ^tf^ I f f fi; I ^1^ I ft^«r I ivjft^: ii

ii. 35] APAM NAPAT 67

15 eva, babhro vrsabha cekitana, So, 0 ruddy hrotvn, far-famed

yatha, deva, na hrnis6 na hamsi, hull, he listening here, 0 Budra, to havanasriin no Rud^reha bodhi. our invocation, inasmuch as thou brhad vadema vidathe suvirah. art not tvroth and slayest not, 0

god. We would, with strong sons, speak aloud at divine ivorship.

6va : to be taken with c, since in the normal sj^ntactical order it should follow yatha in the sense which it here has (p. 241, 1) ; when yatha meaning so that follows, it is normally construed with the sb. (241, 2), not with the ind., as here, cekitana : voc. int. pr. pt. of cit note ; Sayana explains it as knowing all, but the act. only has this sense (e. g. cikitvams Jcnoiving) ; this and the two preceding vocatives are unaccented because not beginning the Pada (p. 466, 18 6). Iirnis6 : 2. s. A. pr. of 2. hr he angry, hamsi : 2. s. pr. of han ; Sandhi, Q6 A 2. bodhi: 2. s. root ao. ipv. of bhu (p. 172, n. 1). nas : dat. to be taken with bodhi, lit. he invocation-hearing for us (not gen. dependent on havana, lit. hearing the invocation of us). vadema : see note on ii. 12, 15 d.

APAM NiPAT

This deity is celebrated in one entire hymn (ii. 35), is invoked in two stanzas of a hymn to the Waters, and is often mentioned incidentally else- where. Brilliant and youthful, he shines without fuel in the waters which surround and nourish him. Clothed in lightning, he is golden in form, appearance, and colour. Standing in the highest place, he always shines with undimmed splendour. Steeds, swift as thought, carry the Son of Waters. In the last stanza of his hymn he is invoked as Agni and must be identified with him ; Agni, moreover, in some hymns addressed to him, is spoken of as Apam napat. But the two are also distinguished ; for example, ' Agni, accordant with the Son of Waters, confers victory over Vrtra '. The epithet asu-h6nian stviftly -speeding, applied three times to Apam napat, in its only other occurrence refers to Agni. Hence Apam napat appears to represent the lightning form of Agni which lurks in the cloud. For Agni, besides being directly called Apam napat, is also termed the embryo (garbha) of the waters ; and the third form of Agni is described as kindled in the waters.

This deity is not a creation of Indian mythology, but goes back to the Indo-Iranian period. For in the Avesta Apam napat is a spirit of the

F 2

68

APAM NAPAT

[ii. 35, 1

waters, who lives in their depths, who is surrounded by females, who is often invoked with them, who drives with swift steeds, and is said to have seized the brightness in the depth of the ocean.

ii. 35. Metre : Tristubh. ^^f ^^rf ^T^ fiixi ^ I

gi*^^^: I ^Tf^ I ^f^^c^ I ff II

1 lipem asrksi vajayiir vacasyam : cano dadhifca nadio giro me. Apam napad asuh^ma kuvit sa ^up^sasas karati ? josisad dhi.

Desirous of gain I have sent forth this eloquence (to him) ; ma?/ the son of streams gladly accept my songs. Will he, the Son of Waters, ofsivift impulse, perchance make (them) well-adorned? For he tvill enjoy (them).

asrksi : 1. s/A. s ,ao. of srj, which with upa may take two ace, so that nadyam , might be supplied. On im. see 180 (p. 220). dadhita : 3. s. pr. op. A. of dha, which with canas takes the ace. or loc. r^adya, which occurs, only here, is evidently synonymous with apam napat in c. asuh^ma, though a Bv., is accented on the second member : see p. 455 c a. karati : 3. s. sb. root ao. of kr : unaccented because kuvit necessarily accents the verb only if it is in the same Pada. sup^sasas well-adorned = well-rewarded ; cp. ii. 34, 6 : dhi yam vajapesasam a prayer adorned tvith gain ; on Ihe accent see p. 455 ca; on the Sandhi (-s k-) see 43, 2a. josisat : 3. s. sb. is ao. of jus. hi explains why he is likely to accept them ; it accents j6sisat, which, however, as beginning a new sentence (p. 466, 19 a), w^ould be accented without it.

f^^M^f g^^T ^^T^ II

TT^i I g I w 1 1^: I w I gvjcr^i ^Mn^ I ^%^ I ff^ci: I w I ^^ I w^jT{^ I ^^Tci; I ^g^^ I g^T i f^^lN I ^^: I g^^ I ^^T^ II

ii. 35, 3]

2 imam su asmai hrda a siitas-

tam mantram vocema : kuvid asya

v^dat ? Apam napad, asuriasya mahna, visvani aryo bhiivana jajana.

APAM NAP AT

69

We tvoiikl verily utter from our heart this tvelJ- fashioned hymn for him. Perchance he loill take note of it. The Son of Waters, the lord, hy the greatness of divine dominion, has created all beings.

39, 1

hrda a : this expression occurs several times, e. g. iii. matir hrda a vacyamana a prayer ivelUng from the heart, su- tastam tvellfashioned, like a car, to which the seers frequently compare their hymns ; on the accent see p. 456, la; cp. p. 462, 13 b. asmai and asya : unaccented, p. 452, 8 B c ; dat. of prs. with vac : cp. 200, 1 c. v^dat: 3. s. pr. sb. of vid Jcnotv, with gen., cp. 202 Ac. asuryasya : see p. 451, 6.

3 sam anya yanti, lipa yanti While somefloiv together, others

anyah : flotv to (the sea) ; the streams fill

samanam urvam nadiah pr- the common receptacle; Mm the

nanti. pure, the shining Son of Waters,

tam u sueim sucayo didivam- the pure ivaters stand around.

sam Apam napatam pari tasthur

apah.

yanti : accented because of the antithesis expressed by anyah — anyah, the first vb. then being treated as subordinate (see p. 468 ^). urvam : = ocean, samanam : common, because all streams flow into it. nadyas : cp. asuryasya in 2 c. prnanti : from pr fill.

70 APAM NAPAT [ii. 35, 3

u : u is often lengthened in the second syllable of a Pada before a single consonant (see p. 220). didivamsam : pf. pt. of di shme, with lengthened red. vowel (139, 9) and shortened radical vowel ; the sense is illustrated by 4 d. pari tasthur : = thei/ tend him.

4 tarn asmera yuvatayo yiivanam Him, the youth, the young

marmrjyamanah pari yanti a- maidens, the tvaters, not smiling,

pah : malcing him 'bright surround : he

sa sukr^bhih sikvabhi revad tvith clear flames shines bounti-

asme fully on us, without fuel in the

didayanidhmo ghrtanirnig apsu. waters, having a garment of ghee.

asmeras : it is somewhat uncertain what is the exact sense here implied ; but judging by iv. 58, 8, where the drops of ghee are described as hastening ' to Agni like beauteous maidens, smiling, to meeting-places ', it may mean that the waters attend seriously on this form of Agni, not as lovers, yiivanam : a term applied to Agni in several passages, marmrjyamanas : the vb. mrj is often used of making Agni bright, with ghee, &c. sikvabhis : the precise sense is somewhat doubtful, but it must mean 'flames' or the like. Note that though in this word the ending bhis is separated in the Pada text, it is not so in sukr^bhis because siikre is not a stem. asm6 : dat. Pragrhya, 26 c. didaya: 3. s. pf. of di shine, with long red. vowel (139, 9). an-idhmas : accent, p. 455 c a ; cp. x. 30, 4 ; y6 anidhmo didayad apsii antar tvho shone tvithout fuel in the ivaters. ghrta- nirnik : an epithet otherwise applied only to Agni and (once) to the sacrifice (yajna) : note that the second member appears in the Pada text as nirnik, in accordance with the analysis nih-nik when the word occurs uncompounded.

ii. 35, G] APAM NAPAT 71

On Mm, the immovable god, three

5 asmai tisr6 avyathiaya narir

devaya devir didhisanti annam : krta ivopa hi prasarsr^ apsu ; sa piyusam dhayati purvasu- nam.

divine women desire to bestow food : for he has stretehed forth as it were to the breasts (?) in the waters : he sueJcs the milk of them that first bring forth.

tisro devih : the waters in the three worlds are probably meant ; in iii. 56, 5 Agni is spoken of as having three mothers (trimata), and three maidens of the waters (yosanas tisro apyah) are there men- tioned : they wish to feed him, while he desires to drink their milk, didhisanti : ds. of 1. dha bestoiv : this is the usual form, while dhitsa is rare, krtas : the meaning of this word, which occurs here only, is quite uncertain. pra-sarsr6 : 3. s. pr. int. of sr. dhayati : 8. s. pr. of 2. dha suck, purvasiinam : i. e. Apani napat is their first offspring ; cp. x. 121, 7 : apo janayantir Agnim the tvaters pro- ducing Agni.

^ ^^rr^ ^fibrRT "^ -^ ^^ i ^^ i ^f^hr i ^^ i ^ i ^: i |;ft fr^: ^^: Trff ^'i i ^f : i fr^: i ^^i?^: i ^ I ^^H' ^m^ i^ ^"^ ^iT^^ wm^ I i3 1 ^TM w>j^^m: i

^^irf^ ft ^m^'cfTft II ^"i ^i^^i I ft I ^_^ I ^ I ^-

mft II

6 asvasya atra janimasya ca svar. The birth of this steed is here

druho risah samprcah pahi and in heaven. Do thou protect

surin. the patrons from falling in tvith

amasu piirsu par6 apramrsyam malice and injury. Him that is

naratayo vi nasan nanrtani. not to be forgotten, far away in

unbaked citadels, hostilities shall not reach nor falsehoods.

72

APAM NAP AT

[ii. 35, 6

Though every word is clear in this stanza the meaning of the whole is somewhat uncertain. It seems to be this: Apam napat is produced from both the terrestrial and the heavenly waters. He is invoked to protect sacrificers from injury. He himself dwells beyond the reach of foes, asvasya : Agni is often spoken of as a steed, atra : here, i.e. in the waters of earth, svar : this is the only passage in the KV. in which the word is not to be read as siiar ; it is here a loc. without the ending i (see 82 c). pahi : the change from the 3. to the 2. prs. in the same stanza is common in the RV. with reference to deities. On this form depends the abl. inf. samprcas as well as the two preceding ablatives : lit. protect the patrons from malice and from injury, from falling in tvith them (cp. p. 337 a), amasu : in the unJja'ked, i. e. natural (cloud) citadels. pursii : loc. pi. of piir, 82. paras : note the difference of accent between this adv. and the N. s. adj. paras yonder, other, nasat ; inj. pr. of 3. nas reach.

7 sva a dame sudiigha yasya IIe,in ivhose own hotise is a cotv

dhenuh, yielding good milk, nourishes his

svadham pipaya, subhu annam vital force, he eats the excellent

atti ; food ; he, the Son of Waters, gather-

s5 'pam napad -urjayann apsii ing strength tvithin the tvaters,

antar, shines forth for the granting of

vasud^yaya vidhat^ vi bhati. ivcalth to the advantage of the

worshij)per.

sva a dame: that is, within the waters; in i. 1, 8 sv6 dame refers to the sacrificial altar on which Agni grows, that is, flames up. The first three Padas merely vary the sense of 5. The food that he

• ii. 35, 9] APAM NAPAT 73

eats is the milk that he receives, and that strengthens him. sva- dham : this word is not analysed in the Padapatha of the RV. and AV. (as if derived from a root svadh), but it is separated in that of the TS. as sva-dha. pipaya : 3. s. pf. of pi swell, with lengthened red. vowel (139, 9). so apam must be read as so *pani since a must here be metrically elided (21 a ; p. 465, 17, 3). On apsv antar see p. 450, 2 h [where apsviantah should be corrected to apsvaintah]. vidhat6 : dat. of advantage (p. 314, B 1) ; on the accent see p. 458, 11, 3. vasudh^yaya : dat. of purpose, ihid., B 2. vi bhati : here Apam napat is thought of as the terrestrial Agni appearing on the sacrificial altar.

3T WT^^ ^^^ Tmfik: II IT I ^T^%_ I ^^: i ^ \ "ffi^if^r: ii

8 y6 apsu a sucina daivlena Who in the waters, ivith bright

rtavajasra urviya vibhati : divinity, holy, eternal, ivklely shines

vaya id any a bhuvanani asya forth : as offshoots of him other

pra jayante viriidhas ca praja- heings and plants propagate them-

bhih. selves ivith progeny.

sucina daivyena : = divine brightness, rtava : note that in the Padapatha the original short a is restored (cp. i. 160, 1). vayas : other beings are his offshoots because he produced them ; cp. 2 d : visvani bhiivana jajana. prajabhis : cp. ii. 33, 1, pra jayemahi prajabhih.

fft^^T: xrf^ ^f^ ^M^: II cr^ i #^^ i ^f|^T^i^ i ^i^\ i

fft^^^i: I ^fr; I ^f^ I ^^: ii

74 APAM NAPAT [ii. 35, 9

9 Apam napad a hi asthad upa- The Smi of JVaters lias occupied

stham the lap of the prone (waters), (him-

jihmanam, urdhv6 vidyutam self) upright, clothing himself in

vasanah. lightning. Bearing his highest

tasya jy^stham mahimanam greatness, golden-hued, the swift

vahantir, streams floiv around (him). hiranyavarnah pari yanti yah-

vih.

The lightning Agni is again described in this stanza, jihmanam urdhvah : these words are in contrast ; cp. i. 95, 5 of Agni : vardhate . . . asu jihmanam iirdhvah . . . upasthe he groivs in them, upright in the lap of the prone, tasya mahimanam his great- ness = him the great one. hiranyavarnas : because he is clothed in lightning, pari yanti : cp. 3 a and 4 b. yahvis : the meaning of the word yahva, though it occurs often, is somewhat uncertain : it may be great (Naighantuka, Sayana), or swift (Koth), or young (Geldner).

ff T^^T ^'^^^# II ffW^Tci: I ^fr I ^"^^ I f^i^^ I

ff T^^^t: I f 5f^ I iff#^ I w II

10 hiranyariipah, sa hiranyasam- He is of golden form, of golden

drg ; aspect ; this Son of Waters is of

Apam napat sed u hiranyavar- golden hue ; to him (coming) from

nah ; a golden tvomh, after he has sat

hiranyayat pari yoner nisadya, down, the givers of gold give food. hiranyada dadati annam asmai.

In this stanza the terrestrial Agni is described. He is spoken of as ' golden ' because of the colour of his flames. s6d : 48 a. pari as a prp. here governs the abl. (176, 1 a). The golden source of Agni

ii. 35, 11] APAM NAP AT 75

may be the sun, as Durga thinks ; thus the solar deity Savitr is spoken of as distinctively golden (cp. i. 35) ; but hiranyaya y6ni may = hiranyagarbha (x. 121, 1) at the creation, when Agni was produced from the waters (x. 121, 7). Sayana wishes to supply rajate after ni§adya = having sat down shines. This is quite un- necessary ; it is more natural to take c and d as one sentence, nisadya referring to asmai : to him, after he has sat down, ihey give (cp. 210). Note that the Pada text shortens the final vowel of nisadya (cp. 164, 1). hiranyadas : that is, those who give gold as a sacrificial fee, the patrons of the sacrifice. In a hymn in praise of the daksina the sacrificial fee (x. 107, 2) it is said hiranyada amrtatvam bhajante the givers of gold partalce of immortality, dadati : 3. pi. pr. act. of da give (p. 125, f. n. 4). annam : the oblation (cp. 11 d).

?rf^5^ g^fT^: ^^T ^1 1 v^ I g^fT^: 1 ^'l 1 T^T 1

j[ tad asyanikam uta caru nama That face of his and the dear

apiciam vardhate naptur apam. secret name of the Son of Waters

yam indhate yuvatayah. sam grow. Of him, tvhom, golden-

ittha coloured, the maidens kindle thus,

hiranyavarnam : ghrtam annam ghee is the food.

asya.

anikam : the flaming aspect of Agni seen at the sacrifice, apic- yam : secret ; cp. giihyam caru nama the dear secret name of Soma (ix. 96, 16) ; the secret name of the Son of Waters grmvs means that the sacrificial Agni, under his secret name of Son of Waters, grows in the waters, cherished by them ; another way of expressing what is said in 4 and 7. The cadence of b is irregular, the last syllable but one being short instead of long (cp. p. 440). yuvatayas : the waters (cp. 4 a), sam : the prp. after the vb. (p. 468, 20). ghrtam annam asya : cp. ghrtanirnik in 4 d and subhv annam atti in 7 b.

76

APAM NAP AT

[ii. 35, 11

The general meaning of the stanza is :